Alternative Employment Opportunities Research Articles

Dynamics of Indian Rural Labour Supply: Causes and Consequences of Farm Labour Shortage on Agricultural Development

Indian agriculture is often cited as a classic example for disguised unemployment. Labour abundance, lower level of wages, and need for creation of alternate employment opportunities for a huge section of labour force have always been the central issues of debates throughout the planning period. In the current period, the primary sector has undergone a tremendous change and there are instances of farm labour supply shortages. This contemporary phenomenon is mainly attributed to rural-urban migration and public work inceptions. Especially the MGNREGA has been able to draw a huge labour force, and in the era of transportation and communication revolution, migration is very easy and is a profitable phenomenon as discussed in this paper. This has resulted in driving the rural farm labour wages to newer heights and has also caused a dearth of farm labour. The study concludes that MGNREGA must be implemented in partnership with local farmers in such a way that the local farmers will gain labour supply through MGNREGA, and the State will also share the fiscal burden with the local farmers in season of crops and only in the off season can the State venture into development of local infrastructure, which will consequently aid in sustainable agricultural development.

Psychosocial Work Environment and Intention to Leave the Nursing Profession: A Cross-National Prospective Study of Eight Countries

Many countries throughout the world are facing a serious nursing shortage, and retention of nurses also is a challenge. The aim of this study was to compare the predictive contribution of a broad spectrum of psychosocial work factors, including job strain, effort-reward imbalance, and alternative employment opportunity, to the probability of intention to leave the nursing profession. A total of 7,990 registered female nurses working in hospitals in eight countries (Germany, Italy, France, The Netherlands, Belgium, Poland, Slovakia, and China) were included in the one-year prospective study. A standardized questionnaire on job strain, effort-reward imbalance, employment opportunity, and intention to leave the nursing profession was used in the survey. Multilevel logistic regression modeling was used to analyze the data. Results showed that an imbalance between high effort and low reward (in particular, poor promotion prospects) and good employment opportunity at baseline were independently associated with a new intention to leave the nursing profession at follow-up. However, job strain appeared to have relatively less explanatory power. Findings suggest that interventions to improve the psychosocial work environment, especially the reciprocity experienced between effort and reward, may be effective in improving retention of nurses and tackling the international nursing shortage.

Onset of Work Restriction in Employed Adults with Lower Limb Joint Pain: Individual Factors and Area-Level Socioeconomic Conditions

Purpose To examine individual and area-level socioeconomic factors that predict the onset of work restriction in employed persons with lower limb joint pain. Methods Population-based prospective cohort study. Adults were aged 50–59, reported hip, knee, foot pain or a combination and maintained employment through 3 year follow-up (n = 716). Work restriction was measured as inability to participate in work as desired. Multi-level logistic regression was used to assess the associations of work restriction onset with baseline factors: health (severity of knee pain/functional limitation, comorbidity, anxiety, depression, cognitive impairment, abnormal weight), demographic socio-economic, environment and area-level employment deprivation. Results 108 (15.1 %) reported the onset of work restriction over 3 years. Severe lower limb joint pain and functional limitation, number of affected body sites and area employment deprivation were independently associated with onset. Significant interactions indicated a greater effect of area employment deprivation on older and more depressed workers. Conclusions Results suggest that effectively preventing work disability in those with OA will require both condition-specific interventions to decrease pain and maintain function, and providing alternative employment opportunities for those with progressive functional limitations. Results in older workers are particularly concerning, as retirement ages are expected to increase in the general population.

Ageing and entrepreneurial preferences

Previous research on age and entrepreneurship assumed homogeneity and downplayed age-related differences in the motives and aims underlying enterprising behaviour. We argue that the heterogeneity of entrepreneurship influences how the level of entrepreneurial activity varies with age. Using a sample of 2,566 respondents from 27 European countries, we show that entrepreneurial activity increases almost linearly with age for individuals who prefer to only employ themselves (self-employers), whereas it increases up to a critical threshold age (late 40s) and decreases thereafter for those who aspire to hire workers (owner-managers). Age has a considerably smaller effect on entrepreneurial behaviour for those who do not prefer self-employment but are pushed into it by lack of alternative employment opportunities (reluctant entrepreneurs). Our results question the conventional wisdom that entrepreneurial activity declines with age and suggest that effective responses to demographic changes require policy makers to pay close attention to the heterogeneity of entrepreneurial preferences.

Social and Ecological Change over a Decade in a Village Hunting System, Central Gabon

Despite widespread recognition of the major threat to tropical forest biological diversity and local food security posed by unsustainable bushmeat hunting, virtually no long-term studies tracking the socioecological dynamics of hunting systems have been conducted. We interviewed local hunters and collected detailed hunting data to investigate changes in offtake and hunter characteristics over 10 years (2001-2010) in Dibouka and Kouagna villages, central Gabon, in the context of hunter recollections of longer term trends since the 1950s. To control for changes in hunter behavior, such as trap location and characteristics, we report hunting offtake data per trap. Our results suggest the hunting area was already highly depleted by 2001; local hunters reported that 16 large-bodied prey species had become rare or locally extirpated over the last 60 years. Overall, we observed no significant declines in hunting offtake or changes in species composition from 2001 to 2010, and offtakes per trap increased slightly between 2004 and 2010. However, trapping distance from the villages increased, and there was a switch in hunting techniques; a larger proportion of the catch was hunted with guns in 2010. The number of hunters declined by 20% from 2004 to 2010, and male livelihood activities shifted away from hunting. Hunters with the lowest hunting incomes in 2004 were more likely than successful hunters to have moved away from the village by 2010 (often in response to alternative employment opportunities). Therefore, changes in trap success (potentially related to biological factors) were interacting with system-level changes in hunter number and composition (related to external socioeconomic factors) to produce a relatively static overall offtake. Our results highlight the importance of understanding the small-scale context of hunting to correctly interpret changes or apparent stasis in hunting effort and offtake over time.

Will the Income-Based Repayment Program Enable Law Schools to Continue to Provide 'Harvard-Style' Legal Education?

Will the Income-Based Repayment Program Enable Law Schools to Continue to Provide 'Harvard-Style' Legal Education?

From Waste to Employment Opportunities and Wealth Creation: A Case Study of Utilization of Livestock By-Products in Hargeisa, Somaliland

The objective of the study was to establish the involvement of vulnerable women and youths in innovative livestock by-products value addition to create alternative employment opportunities and diversify wealth creation livelihood activities through DFID funded SEED programme being implemented by FAO Somalia in the security fragile state of Somaliland that has few options of formal employment opportunities. The study focused on the processes and achievements of the SEED programme towards deriving maximum benefits from livestock by-products instead of concentrating on meat production and consumption only. During the programme intervention, an initial forty (40) beneficiaries of various trade skills and academic levels were selected through SOMDA for capacity development with Competency Based Training (CBT) skills. One of the primary advantages of CBT was that it focused on the success of each participant. The training focused on each trainee attaining a small number of specific and job-related competencies in bone-craft trinkets and laundry soap production. By the end of SEED phase I, the intervention created a total of 120 direct jobs who were involved in soap and bone-crafts production giving the impetus of making full use of the meat value chain and creating a viable source of employment and income for women and youths in Somaliland contributing to increased Somali economy from the main lifeline of Somalia population that is anchored on livestock production and trade.

From Waste to Employment Opportunities and Wealth Creation: A Case Study of Utilization of Livestock By-Products in Hargeisa, Somaliland

This article was conducted to establish the involvement of vulnerable women and youths in innovative livestock by- products value addition to create alternative employment opportunities and diversify wealth creation livelihood activities through DFID UKaid Sustainable Employment and Economic Development (SEED) funded programme and implemented by FAO Somalia in the security fragile state of Somaliland that has few options of formal employment opportunities. The study focused on the processes and achievements of the SEED programme towards deriving maximum benefits from livestock by-products instead of concentrating on meat production and consumption only. During the programme intervention, an initial forty (40) beneficiaries of various trade skills and academic levels were selected through SOMDA for capacity development with competency based training (CBT) skills. One of the primary advantages of CBT was that it focused on the success of each participant. The training focused on each trainee attaining a small number of specific and job-related competencies in bone-craft trinkets and laundry soap production. By the end of SEED phase I, the intervention created a total of 120 direct jobs which were involved in soap and bone-crafts production giving the impetus of making full use of the meat value chain and creating a viable source of employment and income for women and youths in Somaliland contributing to increased Somali economy from the main lifeline of Somalia population that is anchored on livestock production and trade.

The impact of land management systems on community attitudes towards tourism and conservation in six South African countries

Many rural areas of Africa are characterised by high levels of unemployment, poverty and increasing population densities. Arid climates and erratic rainfall also make many of these areas marginal for agriculture and offer few alternative employment opportunities. Ecotourism in these areas can offer a sustainable land use option that promotes biodiversity conservation, can assist in poverty reduction and promote local socio-economic development. Receipt of benefits from ecotourism is also claimed to improve community attitudes towards conservation. Through extensive questionnaire surveys, this study analysed the impact of land management systems on community attitudes towards tourism and conservation in six southern African countries: Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The study found that diverse land management systems such as government-owned land and communal land had differing effects on attitudes. Overall, some level of community ownership or participation, such as in joint ventures, resulted in more positive community attitudes. The results highlight the importance of empowerment and ownership in order to promote biodiversity conservation and ensure the long-term sustainability of ecotourism operations.

Sweatshops, Opportunity Costs, and Non-Monetary Compensation: Evidence from El Salvador1

Using evidence from field interviews, this article examines the alternative employment opportunities of thirty-one sweatshop factory workers in El Salvador and their perceptions about what types of non-monetary benefits they receive in their current employment. Interview subjects provide insights into the benefits of their own and peers' employments, their next-best alternative employment, and other aspects of total compensation. We find that workers perceive factory employment to provide more desirable compensation along several margins.

Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction among Teachers during Times of Burnout

Organizations want to maximize productivity by minimizing stress, as increased levels of stress and burnout may have significant implications for organizational performance such as reduced job satisfaction and lowered organizational commitment. Also certain occupations are linked more to burnout than the others. The present exploratory study undertakes the examination of burnout among teachers in the university as they are an essential part of a successful educational system. Organizational commitment is essential for retaining and attracting well qualified workers as only satisfied and committed workers will be willing to continue their association with the organization and make considerable effort towards achieving its goals. This work is significant for two reasons: It attempts to develop and test a model for burnout and its effect on job satisfaction and the subsequent effect of job satisfaction on organizational commitment; It signifies one of the first attempts to develop a linkage among burnout, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment among teachers. This study examines three factors of burnout as potential antecedents of 153 university teacher's job satisfaction, and the effect of increased job satisfaction on commitment among employees toward their organization. Structural Equation Modeling results indicate that: All three factors of burnout namely, depersonalization, reduced personal accomplishment, and emotional exhaustion lead to decreased job satisfaction. Greater job satisfaction contributes significantly towards an increase in organizational commitment. Out of the three dimensions of burnout, female teachers score higher on emotional exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment indicating that they could not work the way they wanted to with their students or that they have less influence on their students, whereas male teachers score higher on depersonalization. In terms of job satisfaction, females show higher levels of job satisfaction as compared to men, perhaps due to low expectations about job status among female teachers as compared to male teachers. A perceived difference in alternative employment opportunities between genders offers an explanation to the finding that women are more committed to organizations than their male counterparts The results of the study have implications for the management of educational institutions as employee burnout may have important consequences for the organization. Since teachers are a valuable resource to educational institutes, management must invest significant resources in the assessment of their working environment, both mental and physical, to maximize the quality of service delivery.

The Meaning of Career Success among Job-Hopper in The Boundaryless Career (Phenomenological Research)

This phenomenology qualitative research was conducted in order to know the dynamics of career success among job hopper and how did job hoppers interpret the meaning career success in boundaryless career. This research used in-depth interview for collecting the data and supported by the data from the documents. The respondents involved in this research were fours job hoppers in the level of manager, five significant others, such as family, workmate, and a steady career. The findings revealed that: the job-hoppers individuals who frequently movement of job from one place to another place because of intrinsic factors (financial, interpersonal conflict, alternative employment opportunities, etc.), extrinsic factors (challenges, willing to learn, personal characteristics, family, etc.), proponent factors (networking, family support, and media). The meanings of career success among job-hopper in the boundaryless career namely; self-fulfillment (job satisfaction, life satisfaction, meeting personal goals, adding value to others), and work/life balance (family satisfaction and quality time with family). This study showed that being a job-hopper was a tool for pursuing the meaning of career success.

Preferred Resource Spaces and Fisher Flexibility: Implications for Spatial Management of Small-Scale Fisheries

Many fisheries management interventions are in the form of spatial regulations that change fishers’ access to fishing grounds. How fishers respond to regulations directly affects the ecological and socioeconomic outcomes of management objectives, but little attention is paid to fishers’ willingness and ability to make spatial adjustments. We investigate the spatial preferences of small-scale fishers in Sabah, Malaysia, within a framework of mental maps and perceptions. We find that the majority of fishers fish within preferred resource spaces that were heavily influenced by perceptions of safety. Most fishers exhibit low flexibility to adapt to spatial changes, based on i) unwillingness to travel beyond preferred resource spaces; ii) unwillingness to leave the fishery; and iii) low to no alternative employment opportunities. We emphasize the need to uncover and understand human dimension parameters to reduce uncertainty surrounding human behaviour, and ultimately facilitate the attainment of fisheries management objectives.

Labour Migration from Lesotho to South Africa: Changing Patterns and Policy Implications

This article attempted to analyse the changing patterns of the Lesotho-SA labour migration and adduce its policy implications. Many factors emerge to have influenced migration from Lesotho largely by males who sought work at the mines in SA; namely persistent droughts, gun fever, wars and protectionist policies embraced by SA. The decline observed in the trend of migrant mine workers in recent years, as a result of increasing retrenchments from the mines, threatens the remittances which have been a major source of household income. This delinks many families from the labour markets as many more get unemployed and would likely worsen poverty in Lesotho. This presents an enormous policy challenge for the authorities in Lesotho to look for alternative employment opportunities. Investment in education and entrepreneurial activities are suggested in this article as long-term solution to the skills constraint, and a short-term solution to absorb post-schooling-age population, respectively.

Labour Migration from Lesotho to South Africa: Changing Patterns and Policy Implications

This article attempted to analyse the changing patterns of the Lesotho-SA labour migration and adduce its policy implications. Many factors emerge to have influenced migration from Lesotho largely by males who sought work at the mines in SA; namely persistent droughts, gun fever, wars and protectionist policies embraced by SA. The decline observed in the trend of migrant mine workers in recent years, as a result of increasing retrenchments from the mines, threatens the remittances which have been a major source of household income. This delinks many families from the labour markets as many more get unemployed and would likely worsen poverty in Lesotho. This presents an enormous policy challenge for the authorities in Lesotho to look for alternative employment opportunities. Investment in education and entrepreneurial activities are suggested in this article as long-term solution to the skills constraint, and a short-term solution to absorb post-schooling-age population, respectively.

An assessment of the Pakistan national HIV/AIDS strategy for sex workers

This letter to the editor focuses on Pakistans HIV/AIDS Strategic Framework for vulnerable and high-risk groups particularly sex workers. It assesses the strategy and suggests that the emphasis needs to be directed at training and building the capacity to counsel the sex workers on the risks and dangers involved in their activities and to encourage them to give up these practices. The author also suggests counseling on how to return to a culturally dignified life and how to establish a family life in addition to providing vocational training and alternate employment opportunities. The authors main criticism of the strategy lies in the fact that it may help to decrease the risks associated with the problem but it will in no way eradicate its root cause.

Evaluation of economic and social impacts of the sloping land conversion program: A case study in Dunhua County, China

Based on data from a household survey the objective of the study was to evaluate the economic and social impacts of the Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP). The results indicate that the program was, in general, inefficient because productivity and environmental heterogeneity were given scant consideration in Northeast China. While the program has made a clear attempt to retire plots that are susceptible to soil erosion, there is room for better targeting. Fifty eight per cent of the families involved in afforestation considered themselves worse off after participating in SLCP. The families who experienced a decrease in income were more likely to claim that SLCP was an action forcibly imposed by the government. Although 60% supported the project, a fair proportion (16%) plan to return to cultivating forested areas and grassland once the subsidies of the project end in 2018. The government should widen alternative non-farm employment opportunities in order to ensure the sustainability of the program.

Institutional barriers to work beyond retirement in an aging Japan: Evidence from a recent employee survey

This paper focuses on institutional barriers to older workers' continued work beyond the conventional retirement age in contemporary Japan. Under the current institutional arrangements, most older workers in Japan, contending with mandatory retirement rules at the workplace, have the option of being re-employed after mandatory retirement, and experience large wage reductions if they choose this option. We examine how these institutional arrangements in Japan today affect older workers' views and decisions regarding their future labor market behaviors. Using a multi-nomial logit analysis, we analyze data drawn from a nationally representative sample of 1,400 male regular employees, aged 57 to 59, who participated in the 2007 “Survey on continued employment and occupational life after age 60 (Rokujūsai ikō no keizoku kōyō to shokugyō seikatsu ni kansuru chōsa)”, which was conducted by the Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training (JILPT). Our analysis has found (i) that older workers do not want to be re-employed if their prospective wages are lower than their desired minimum level; (ii) that, if they choose not to be re-employed, they tend to seek alternative employment opportunities by themselves rather than retiring; and (iii) that, other than prospective wage level, the prospective total income (including “in-work” social security benefits) and the availability of flexible work arrangements are crucial factors affecting the future labor market behaviors of older workers.

Net transfer benefits under India's rural employment guarantee scheme

This paper explores the important but relatively neglected issue of real income transfers, net of the opportunity cost of time, under India's National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. We use representative household level primary data for three states, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra to depict various individual and social characteristics of the population in these states as well as those of the participants in the NREGS. We also model the stochastic dominance comparisons of per capita monthly expenditures of participants with and without alternative employment opportunities in the absence of NREG as well as the determinants of such opportunities. As an approximate measure of the net transfer benefits under NREGS, we consider shares of NREG earnings net of the opportunity cost of time in household income. The distribution of such net transfers across household characteristics as well as the distribution of benefits across villages in the three states is also discussed. In general, net transfers under the NREGS are quite modest. Why accurate measurement of such transfers matters in an anti-poverty strategy is elaborated.

Teacher Migration and the Quality of Basic Education in the Upper West Region of Ghana

The Wa West District of the Upper West Region is an important sending area for teacher migrants to the Brong Ahafo Region, both in Ghana. This paper discusses the reasons for the out-migration of teachers and the effects on the quality of basic education in the Wa West District. The discussion focuses on the characteristics of the teacher migrants, reasons for out-migration and the performance of sending schools as a result of the out-migration. The goal is to expose some of the reasons that account for poor quality education in the Upper West Region while attempting to suggest remedies to this problem. To be able to do this a survey was conducted using questionnaire and interviews as main instruments. The survey revealed that economic push factors such as inadequate motivation for teachers in the sending District and the lack of alternative employment opportunities were key factors for teacher migration. The push conditions were found to result in the poor performance of pupils at the primary and junior secondary school levels in sending district. Consequently, it was concluded that improvements in the socio-economic and infrastructure of the sending district, which would aid in bridging the development gap between the two regions, would help in reducing teacher migration and improve the quality of basic education in the Wa West District.KEY WORDS: Teacher Migration, Socio-Economic Forces, Quality Education, Development Gaps, Educational Parity