Alternative Countermeasures Research Articles

Fiscal Interactions of Central City and Suburbs: The Case of Zurich

One possible explanation for the migration from the central city to fiscally independent suburbs is a lack of equivalence between taxation and perceived benefits from local public goods. Spill-outs to suburbs add to this process and may lead to fiscal erosion of the central city. Piecemeal evidence is presented that this problem applies to the city of Zurich. Various possible remedies are discussed, one of which has been applied in Zurich, though not successfully. It is shown theoretically and empirically why this failure occurred. Alternative countermeasures are suggested and an account of how Zurich government officials reacted is supplied.

The Social Control of Drinking‐Driving: An Ethnographic Study of Bar Settings

Rather than being considered merely an illegal act, the drinking‐driving phenomenon can be viewed as a form of social behavior, governed by a set of socially shared rules. This article reports a study which identifies these rules through observation of individuals participating in drinking‐driving behavior in four different settings: a close‐knit neighborhood bar, a neighborhood bar that draws on a larger population, a social club, and “a fairly fashionable watering hole.” The study indicates that the particular social and economic environment of the drinking establishment influences drinking‐driving behavior. The intimacy of the neighborhood bar allows the bartender to exert control over drinking and assist in finding alternatives to driving. As the practical possibilities for contact with the bartender are reduced, the ability for the drinking establishment to control drinking‐driving is lessened. Moreover, the economic reality in all bars—the need to sell drinks—takes precedence over controlling drinking‐ driving. Alternative countermeasures which take into account these social rules of drinking‐driving are suggested as preferable policy developments.

Propaganda and alternative countermeasures for road safety

Propaganda and alternative countermeasures for road safety

THE FLAMMABLE FABRICS PROBLEM

The following paper deals with a type of accident whose etiology includes an aspect of modern technology—in this case the use of flammable fabrics in commercially manufactured clothing. In its opening pages, the paper deals with one of the essential first steps in the development of countermeasures, namely, the large-scale and systematic gathering of epidemiologic data. Without such data, the prevalence of the problem cannot be known, and in the absence of information on prevalence it is possible that an important cause of morbidity or mortality will go unnoticed or unchecked, or on the other hand, that disproportionate amounts of money and manpower will be devoted to countermeasures against relatively trivial causes. Moreover, it is only through sound and extensive epidemiological data that some understanding of etiology can be obtained. Another important contribution made by this paper is the recognition that in the prevention of clothing burns, as in the prevention of many other kinds of accidental injury, several alternative countermeasures are available. All too often practitioners in accident prevention regard a single countermeasure as the only feasible one and as far more effective than it turns out to be when applied. Although the paper recognizes the existence of alternatives, however, it falls short both in enumerating them and in evaluating them critically. Clothing burns involve three factors: flammable fabric, the behavior of the wearer, and the presence of a source of heat. Although the paper discusses legislation (to eliminate flammable fabrics) and education (to modify the behavior of the wearer), it says nothing about legislation, education, or other efforts to eliminate or provide safeguards against the heat source. However, there are convincing data to indicate that the elimination of open flames (through the substitution of central heating for fireplaces, for example) is one of the most effective countermeasures against clothing burns. Such a reduction of open flames may be achieved through legislation (against certain types of space heaters) or technological changes. Moreover, although it is important to recognize that there are alternative countermeasures, it is even more important to distinguish their relative effectiveness. In discussing education, for example, it is important to note that few, if any, systematic studies have shown that an educational program—whether in driver education or in home safety—has shown any reduction in accidents whereas legislative efforts have been highly successful, especially when the countermeasure has involved a modification of a technological practice. Certainly in the case of flammable clothing, an educational program would have to be addressed primarily to those who have been recognized as "hard to reach" and who live surrounded by environmental hazards which cannot be removed by education alone. In its treatment of legislative efforts, this paper leaves a number of questions unanswered. Why, for example, did 9 years elapse between the "cowboy chaps" incident and the enactment of legislation against flammable fabrics? And why was the initial legislation so inadequate as to require amendment, which did not occur until 13 years later? Despite the very high effectiveness of legislative countermeasures against industrial accidents, many people involved in public health and other areas related to safety seem reluctant to initiate legislation that might effectively remove certain environmental hazards. Perhaps because of their own professional traditions, they prefer to rely on education and publicity programs, despite their demonstrated ineffectiveness. It is possible that a clearer understanding of the legislative process, coupled with the identification of special interest groups which oppose such legislation, might lead to far more effective countermeasures.