Alternative Irrigation Research Articles

Impact Evaluation of Alternative Irrigation Technology in Crete: Correcting for Selectivity Bias

The interest in promoting food and water security through development projects has led to the need to evaluate the impact of these projects. This study evaluates the impact from transitioning to a modern irrigation technology. Deciding to adopt or not an alternative irrigation technology (sprinklers) is not necessarily a random determination. Therefore, selection bias can be present and this can lead to biased estimates. In this study, we apply methodological specifications to correct for self-selectivity biases. Then, we measure and compare the technical efficiency scores from adopters and non-adopters. The empirical application uses data covering 56 small-scale greenhouse farms in Crete (Greece) for the cropping years 2009-2013. The results reveal that the average technical efficiency for farmers who adopted sprinkler irrigation is lower than the group of non-adopters, when the presence of selectivity bias cannot be rejected. This implies that either the farmers need more time to incorporate the know-how of the newly acquired technology or they become less motivated after the adoption. Consequently, agricultural water saving technologies need to be promoted in combination with support to the farmers, so they can cope with the lower performance in the first years after adoption.

Effects of Irrigation and Planting Geometry on Soybean (Glycine max L.) Seed Nutrition in Humid Climates

This study investigates the effect of irrigation (FI, all rows-irrigation; HI, alternate row irrigation; RF, rainfed) and planting geometry (PG) (SR, single-row; TR, twin-row) on soybean seed constituents. Results showed that most of these seed components were significantly affected by crop season due to contrasting precipitation and solar radiation patterns, particularly during July-August, coinciding with early reproductive and seed development stages. Both seed protein and oil levels responded positively to irrigation, while most of the amino acids were nonresponsive. The protein content ranged between 36.3 and 37.6% in 2018, while it was between 36.4 and 38.3% in 2019. Total seed oil content varied between 24.2 and 26.1% in 2018 and between 25.3 and 26.5% in 2019. Among amino acids, glycine, alanine, valine, and methionine levels were significantly higher in both FI and HI treatments. Among sugars, only sucrose was higher in response to the RF treatment, and irrigation did not affect both stachyose and raffinose. Oleic acid was higher in RF, while no significant differences were observed for linolenic and linoleic acids. Similarly, seasonal variation was significant for stearic acid content, but the 2019 season had relatively higher accumulation (stearic acid: between 4.1 and 4.5% in 2018 and from 4.6 to 4.9% in 2019). These results indicate that both irrigation and climate during seed development can alter some seed composition constituents and play critical roles in determining seed nutritional qualities.

Effect of Nitrogen Supply Methods on the Gas Exchange, Antioxidant Enzymatic Activities, and Osmoregulation of Maize (Zea mays L.) Under Alternate Partial Root-Zone Irrigation

Effect of Nitrogen Supply Methods on the Gas Exchange, Antioxidant Enzymatic Activities, and Osmoregulation of Maize (Zea mays L.) Under Alternate Partial Root-Zone Irrigation

ANALYSIS OF SUGARCANE PRODUCTION IN PUNJAB, PAKISTAN; CONSTRAINTS AND YIELD NEXUS

Purpose of study: For the previous couple of years, sugarcane crop production is under crisis for many reasons. This study aimed at exploring those reasons impeding the potential production of sugarcane in the Rahim Yar Khan district of Punjab, Pakistan.
 Methodology: A total of 343 randomly selected sugarcane growers participated in this study as respondents. Data were collected through face-to-face interview techniques on a structured and validated questionnaire. Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics through the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (version 22).
 Results: Quantitative results indicated that the total production of sugarcane during the last two years dropped from 833 to 636 mounds per acre. The chi-square analysis confirmed that production, protection, climatic changes policy and financially associated factors had statistically significant (P<0.05) inverse impacts on sugarcane production. In contrast, the marketing factors were statistically non-significant for the production of sugarcane (P>0.05). The qualitative findings as perceived by key informants confirmed that non-availability of disease-resistant varieties, traditional irrigation mechanism, lack of proper plant protection measures, Integrated Pest Management (IPM), climate change, high cost of production, and sluggish policy had pressurized the sugarcane production.
 Recommendations: It is suggested that the development of insect pests, diseasesand drought-resistant varieties should be launched. Efficient and alternate row irrigation system, climate change adoption strategies, integrated pest management, mechanized farming of sugarcane should be adopted in order to curtail the production cost and increase the level of production.
 Novelty: Studies have been conducted to investigate the influencing factors on the yield of sugarcane but this is the first study that indicates the association of those factors that are hampering on-farm production of sugarcane crop in district Rahim Yar Khan, Punjab, Pakistan.

Systematic approach to source-sink apportionment of copper in paddy fields: Experimental observation, dynamic modeling and prevention strategy

The accumulation of heavy metals in paddy rice severely impacts the health of consumers and plants. In this study, a systematic approach to source-sink apportionment of copper in paddy fields was developed by considering all bioenvironmental interfaces. Experimental data from two experimental fields (namely Field A and Field B) in the first harvest period was collected. Then, mass-balance-based models with dynamic critical loads were established to evaluate the year of excess for copper. The results indicated that irrigation water contributed the highest portion (96.2–98.8%) of total copper inputs. Under the business-as-usual scenario, the soil copper concentration of Field A and Field B might exceed the Taiwanese national standard within 66 and 24 years, respectively. In addition, alternate wet-dry irrigation was found to be one of the total solutions to reducing copper accumulation in soils by 17–48%. It could also provide a significant reduction of water usage in paddy fields by ~25%, thereby increasing the resilience to extreme climate change events. Lastly, based on the field observations, three improvement strategies on sustaining soil quality towards better agricultural environment were proposed. The connection of copper accumulation in soils with dietary and ecological risks was also briefly illustrated.

Effects of different nitrogen application rates on dry matter accumulation, distribution and yield of grape under alternate partial root-zone drip irrigation.

To get an optimal mode of irrigation and nitrogen supply for table grape production in North China, a pot experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of different irrigation modes and N application rates on dry matter accumulation and distribution, yield, water use efficiency, and nitrogen use efficiency of table grape. The irrigation modes included conventional drip irrigation (CDI, with sufficient irrigation), alternate partial root-zone drip irrigation (ADI, with 50% amount of the irrigation water of CDI) and fixed partial root-zone drip irrigation (FDI, with 50% amount of the irrigation water of CDI). The nitrogen application rates were set at 0.4 (N1), 0.8 (N2) and 1.2 (N3) g·kg-1 dry soil. The results showed that compared with CDI, ADI and FDI reduced new shoot pruning amount by 34.8% and 11.2%, respectively. New shoot pruning amount increased with increasing N application rates, being highest under CDIN3. Dry matter accumulation of ADI was the highest, being 5.1% and 12.8% higher than CDI and FDI. Dry matter accumulation was higher under N2 and N3 than N1. Compared with CDI and FDI, leaf to fruit ratio reduced but harvest index significantly increased in ADI, while those variables showed no significant difference among diffe-rent N application rates. The ratio of pruning amount to the biomass accumulated in the current year in ADIN2 was the lowest among the treatments. Compared with CDI and FDI, ADI increased grape fruit yield by 6.0% and 10.4%, respectively. Fruit yield was enhanced with increasing nitrogen application rates under the same irrigation condition, with the highest yield under the ADIN2 and ADIN3. Water use efficiency (WUE) increased significantly in ADI compared with CDI and FDI, with the highest value being observed in ADI coupled with N2 or N3. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) showed a trend of ADI＞CDI＞FDI. In addition, NUE decreased with increasing nitrogen supply level across the irrigation modes. In conclusion, ADIN2 could reduce the redundant growth of grape tree, promote the transfer of dry matter to fruit, which increased yield and use efficiency of both water and nitrogen, which is a suitable coupling water and nitrogen supply mode for grape production in northern China.

Effect of Irrigation Levels and Intervals on Groundnut (Arachishypogaea L.) Cultivars under Drip System

The field experiment entitled “effect of irrigation levels and intervals on groundnut (Arachishypogaea L.) Cultivars under drip system” was conducted at Instructional Farm, S.K. Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner during Kharif 2019. Irrigation level of 0.80 PE gave higher dry matter accumulation, pods plant-1 (44.13), kernels pod-1 (2.38), pod yield (3117 kg ha-1), haulm yield (4081 kg ha-1), biological yield (7199 kg ha-1), test weight (446.58 g) and oil yield (978.32 kg ha-1) followed by 0.60 PE. Alternate day irrigation intervals gave higher dry matter accumulation, crop growth rate, pods plant-1 (43.55), kernels pod-1 (2.36), pod yield (2993 kg ha-1), haulm yield (3986 kg ha-1), biological yield (6980 kg ha-1), test weight (443.22 g) compared to 3 days irrigation intervals. Groundnut cultivars HNG-123 gave higher pods plant-1 (43.45), kernel pod-1 (2.39), pod yield (2925 kg ha-1), haulm yield (3977 kg ha-1), biological yield (6902 kg ha-1) and test weight (470.58 g) compared to all other cultivars.

Alternate Infiltration Irrigation Improves Photosynthetic Characteristics and Water Use Efficiency in Mango Seedlings

The growth status of mango (Mangifera indica L.) seedlings directly affects the yield and quality of mango, but there are few reports on water management at the growth stage of mango seedlings. The objective of this study was to identify an optimal water-saving irrigation method for mango seedlings. Taking surface drip irrigation as the control (CK), the effects of alternate infiltration irrigation (AII) on the photosynthetic characteristics, growth, and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) of mango seedlings were studied. The AII systems used three irrigation levels: 90% (AII90), 70% (AII70), and 50% (AII50) of the irrigation quota of CK. The results indicated that compared with CK, AII70 and AII50 increased the average leaf water use efficiency by 10.54% and 11.77%, respectively. However, compared with CK, AII50 decreased the average stomatal conductance and transpiration rate by 13.89% and 13.76%, respectively. There was a significant linear relationship between dry mass increment and net photosynthetic rate. The dynamic TOPSIS method indicated that AII70 provided optimal comprehensive photosynthetic benefits. The incremental dry mass and IWUE of AII70 were significantly higher than those of the other treatments. Therefore, we recommend applying a moderate water deficit through alternate infiltration irrigation (AII70) for water management in mango seedling cultivation.

Partial root-zone drying irrigation increases water-use efficiency of tobacco plants amended with biochar

Modulation of stomatal morphology and behavior is associated with changes in water use of the plant due to varied input of water, yet the underlying mechanism of such association remains largely elusive. We investigated the effects of reduced irrigation on leaf gas exchange and stomatal morphology of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) plants grown in a Ferralsol and an Anthrosol amended by softwood (SWB) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) straw biochar (WSB). Compared to plants grown under full irrigation (FI), deficit irrigation (DI) and especially alternate partial root-zone drying irrigation (PRD) significantly decreased the stomatal conductance (gs) while marginally reducing the leaf photosynthetic rate (An), thereby enhancing intrinsic water-use efficiency (WUEi=An/gs), whereas the effects of biochars were not evident. Moreover, reduced irrigation, particularly PRD, increased the concentration of abscisic acid in the leaf ([ABA]leaf) compared to FI, which was further amplified by WSB addition. Leaf carbon isotope discrimination (Δ13Cleaf) responded similarly to irrigation and biochar addition as gs. Compared to FI, reduced irrigation (DI and PRD) lowered stomata size (SS) but increased their density (SD) and this effect was more pronounced for PRD coupled with WSB. Moreover, SD was significantly positively correlated with [ABA]leaf, while negatively correlated with gs, soil water content, and Δ13Cleaf. The opposite correlations between SS and these variables were observed. The results collectively suggest that ABA-mediated the effects of PRD combined with WSB amendment resulted in higher SD and lower SS and gs, contributing to the increased WUEi and long-term WUE of tobacco plants.

CHARACTERIZING WATER DISTRIBUTION OF FURROW IRRIGATION TO IMPROVE SOIL PRODUCTIVITY IN NORTH NILE DELTA OF EGYPT

Field trials were conducted at Sakha farm, Kafr EL-Sheikh Governorate, Egypt to find the best interaction between furrow design, cut-off irrigation, Alternative furrow irrigation, discharge and phosphorus fertilization to enhance faba bean productivity and profit (Net Return) of North Nile Delta soils. Design and evaluate the effect off cut off irrigation (100 % (I1), 90 % (I2) and 85 % (I3) from furrow length) and alternative furrow irrigation (I4) with 4 lps/m irrigation discharge and four fertilization treatments; F1 (100% Rp, as control), F2 (75 % Rp +Phosphorien), F3 (65 % Rp+ Phosphorien) and F4 (55 % Rp+ Phosphorien) on infiltration characteristics, intake family and chosen irrigation parameters with post irrigation of feba bean crop. The results showed that, the infiltration rate decreased rapidly at elapsed time 4 hours in the two studied seasons and individual regression is considered representative of the soil intake conditions. The distribution uniformity for applied water is more than 0.9 under different cut-off irrigation and alternative furrow irrigation. Application efficiency increased as intake family decreased and is the best discharge management for furrow inflow rate at 2 lps/m. The measured irrigation time, and advance time was higher than the designed. While the designed recession time, opportunity time and the ratio between irrigation time and advance time were higher than measured values. The ratio of inflow time to advance time for design parameters is more than 2 meanwhile, the design is valid in studied soil. The highest ratio was obtained with cut-off at 85% from furrow length. It can be concluded that the highest values of irrigation application efficiency were obtained with cut-off at 85% from furrow length for design and measured parameters. Concerning the economic evaluation, I4 combined with F3 achieved the highest values of net return and benefit cost ratio followed by combined treatments I3F3, while the lowest values of specific cost was detected with I4F3.

Mulching operation favours the suppression of weed seed germination and its growth. Hence, it keeps the weed under control

Field experiment was conducted at Vegetable block of College of Horticulture, Bagalkote, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkote to study the effect of different levels of irrigation and mulches on growth and yield of tomato. The experiment with 12 treatment combinations was laid out in split plot design with three replications. Main plot constitutes four irrigation levels (I1: 100%, I2: 80%, I3: 60% and I4: 40% cumulative pan evapotranspiration) and subplot comprised of three levels of mulches (M1: Without mulch, M2: Sugarcane mulch and M3: Polythene mulch). Irrigation was given based on cumulative pan evapotranspiration following alternate day irrigation schedule using drip irrigation. The treatment combination receiving drip irrigation at 80 per cent CPE along with polythene mulch (I2M3) was recorded with highest fruit yield per plant (2.74 kg), yield per plot (60.90 kg) and yield per hectare (51.83 t/ha). The same treatment combination was noticed with highest benefit cost ratio of 3.23. Whereas, highest water use efficiency was noticed under individual treatments of drip irrigation (I4) provided at 40 per cent CPE (255.44 kg ha-1mm-1) and under polythene mulch (204.03 kg ha-1mm-1). The highest soil moisture content was observed under the treatment combination with drip irrigation at 100 per cent CPE under polythene mulch (I2M3) at 30 and 60 DAT, whereas, at 90 DAT it was highest under I2M3. However, lowest weed density was noticed under all the four irrigation levels in combination with polythene mulch at all the monthly intervals.

Effect of wastewater irrigation as an alternative irrigation resource on heavy metal accumulation in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and human health risk from consumption

The present research was performed to examine and compare the level of heavy metals in ginger (Zingiber officinale) irrigated with canal water and wastewater. Soil and vegetable samples were collected from two different areas irrigated with multiple water sources. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used for evaluation of metals, zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb), iron (Fe), and chromium (Cr). The metal accumulations in soil samples were ranged from 0.09 to 6.01 mg/kg. The metal accumulations in plant samples were ranged from 0.15 to 6.14 mg/kg. The Fe was found to be the heavy metal with the highest accumulation value in both sampling sites. The bioconcentration factor for Pb was highest at Site 1 and the lowest for Zn at Site 2. Pollution load index greater than one was obtained for Cr and Cd at both sites. Health risk index for all heavy metals was lower than 1 except for Pb and found in the following sequence: Pb>Ni>Cu>Cd>Fe>Zn>Cr>Co>Mn. Therefore, proper management strategies should be taken to reduce the extent of metal contamination in the food crop.

Antimicrobial properties of various solvents combinations for phytochemical fraction derived from Uncaria gambier extract against Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212

Introduction: Enterococcus faecalis is often found in root canal infections and can cause failure in root canal treatment. Uncaria gambier is an herbal medicine that is known to be rich in polyphenol compounds that have antibacterial properties. Because of the polyphenol content and antibacterial properties of Uncaria gambier, it can be an alternative as an antibacterial solution for root canal treatment. The purpose of this study is to analyze the antimicrobial of various solvents combinations for phytochemical fraction derived from Uncaria gambier extract against Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212). Methods: This study is descriptive explorative research Uncaria gambier was extracted using a combination of three different fractions, ethyl acetate-water, hexane-water and hexane-ethyl acetate. We determine the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) against Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212) using the serial microdilution method and by add test samples to the Mueller Hinton agar medium from each fraction Results: Combination ethyl acetate-water has MIC value at 0.195 mg/ml, combination hexane-water at 0.049 mg/ml and combination hexane-ethyl acetate have the MIC value at 1.563 mg/ml. The MBC value in combination ethyl acetate-water at 25 mg/ml, combination hexane-ethyl acetate and hexane-water MBC value at 50 mg/ml and 100 mg/ml. Based on optical density measurement using ELISA reader and bacterial growth on the media used, the fraction combinations increase the antibacterial effect of Uncaria gambier against E. faecalis ATCC 29212. Conclusion: The combination of various Uncaria gambier solvents has been shown to inhibit and kill E. faecalis (ATCC 29212). The combination of ethyl acetate-water fraction is the best combination to against E. faecalis (ATCC 29212). It means that the combination of various Uncaria gambier solvents can be developed as alternative root canal irrigation.

Combined use of zinc nanoparticles and co-composted biochar enhanced wheat growth and decreased Cd concentration in grains under Cd and drought stress: A field study

Toxic metals present in soil and water severally affect the food crops and create serious health concerns. The current field study was focused on the impacts of foliar spray of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) (100 mg/L) and soil applied co-composted biochar (0.5% w/w) on yield and cadmium (Cd) accumulation by grains of wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) under simultaneous Cd and water limited stress. After 60 days of seeds sowing, drought stress was initiated in half plots by alternate irrigation compared to normal irrigation. Plants were harvested after 122 days and various physiological parameters were measured. Results showed that drought and Cd stress collectively decreased plant dry weight and chlorophyll contents and caused oxidative stress in leaves. While application of NPs and co-composted biochar improved the plants biomass and chlorophyll contents by overcoming the oxidative stress and alterating the antioxidants enzymatic activities in stressed plants. Combined application of NPs and co-composted biochar restricted the Cd uptake below its threshold level in grains (0.2 mg/kg). The current study concluded that the combination of ZnO NPs and co-composted BC was helpful to improve wheat growth and biomass, chlorophylls contents, antioxidant enzyme activities by scavenging ROS and reducing Cd uptake by plants under simultaneous Cd and drought stress. • Cadmium and drought stress inhibited wheat growth under field conditions. • NPs and co-composted biochar improved wheat growth and chlorophyll contents under stress. • The amendments enhanced activities of antioxidants enzymes in wheat plants. • The amendments reduced the Cd concentration in wheat grains.

Consumer perceptions after long‐term use of alternative irrigation water: A field experiment in Israel

AbstractThis study provides the first revealed preference estimates of Israelis' willingness to pay for produce irrigated with alternative water. Results show that Israelis prefer produce irrigated with conventional water over any type of alternative water and that their preferences for alternative water varies by type. These results indicate that there may be long‐run limits to how high consumer demand for alternative water can rise. Policymakers should be cognizant of these findings and gradually expose the public to the unavoidable future of widespread alternative water use. Increased public awareness of water scarcity and alternative water technology will encourage adoption when it is possible and necessary.

Determinants Influencing the Adoption of Rice Intensification System among Smallholders in Mwea Irrigation Scheme, Kenya

Rice farming has received considerable attention in developing countries and particularly in Kenya due to its impact on smallholders’ income and food security. Irrigated rice is the largest consumer of water, and its sustainability is threatened by water shortage. This has necessitated the development of alternative irrigation water technologies, such as the system of rice intensification (SRI), which are efficient in water use with improved yields. This study analyzed the determinants of adoption of SRI in the Mwea Irrigation Scheme where stratified sampling was used to obtain 364 smallholder rice farmers. A semistructured questionnaire was used to collect primary data, which was then analyzed using a binary logistic regression model. The results showed that age (−0.3%) was significant but with a negative effect on adoption of SRI. Farm size (2.499%), household size (1.895%), distance from the canal (1.354%), off-farm work (3.953%), access to credit services (8.714%), access to extension services (7.809%), and years in rice farming (0.409%) were found positively and significantly influencing factors to the adoption of SRI. Therefore, this study concludes that smallholders attempt to improve rice productivity through adoption of SRI should give a special priority to all significant factors.

Alternative fertilizer and irrigation practices improve rice yield and resource use efficiency by regulating source-sink relationships

Abstract Understanding the inherent characteristics based on leaf and root source and grain sink under an improved cultivation practice is important to achieve both high grain yield and resource use efficiency in paddy rice. A field experiment to investigate the characteristics was conducted across two years using Wuyunjing24 with five cultivation practices including no nitrogen (N) application (0 N), local farmers' practice (LFP), and three improved cultivation practices (ICPs) consisting of improved fertilizer N practice and higher plant density (ICP1), the same practices as ICP1 but with alternate wetting and moderate drying (AWMD) rather than with the continuous flooding (CF) irrigation (ICP2), and the same practices as ICP2 but plus organic fertilizer application (ICP3). The results showed that all three ICPs could synchronously increase grain yield and resource use efficiency, and the increase was the most for ICP3 and followed by ICP2, when compared with LFP. The total number of spikelets, shoot and root biomasses, total leaf area index (LAI), effective LAI, grain weight-leaf ratio, specific leaf N content, and leaf photosynthetic rate, zeatin and zeatin riboside contents in panicles, leaves and roots, and the activities root of spikelets (the ratio of root activity to spikelet number) during grain filling were significantly increased with the improvement in cultivation practices. The results suggest that the improved cultivation practices are useful to achieve high yield and high resource use efficiency through improving source and sink characteristics and coordinating their relationships.

Evaluation of water productivity with three rice genotypes under different irrigation regimes and nitrogen fertilizer treatments in Rasht, northern Iran*

AbstractThis study investigates the water productivity of three rice genotypes in physical, economic and virtual water terms through different irrigation and fertilizer treatments. The experiment was conducted in 2017 and 2018 in split plot designs based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The main factors include irrigation regimes: flood irrigation of I1 and alternate irrigation treatments of I2, I3 and I4 that involve alternate irrigation with irrigation intervals of 7, 14 and 21 days, respectively. The subfactors include different rice genotypes at three levels of certified local Hashemi, M5 and M12 genotypes at three levels of nitrogen fertilizer of 60, 80 and 100 kg N/ha1. Results showed that the certified Hashemi variety with the 7‐day irrigation interval and 100 kg N/ha1; treatment showed satisfactory physical water productivity (being 1.41 and 1.01 kg/m3 in 2017 and 2018, respectively), and also the highest net benefit per drop (being 31 200 and 29 800 rials/m3 in 2017 and 2018, respectively). According to the results of this study, using alternate irrigation at the 7‐day irrigation interval would save 285 million m3 of water in the Sefidroud irrigation and drainage network.

Phenols in soils and agricultural products irrigated with reclaimed water.

The presence of phenols, such as nonylphenol (NP), bisphenol (BPA), and octylphenol (OP), in the environment have been receiving increased attention due to their potential risks to human health and environment. The use of reclaimed water for irrigation may be one of the sources of these phenols in the agricultural system. A field experiment was conducted to assess the effects of reclaimed water irrigation on phenol contamination of agricultural topsoil and products in the North China Plain between 2015 and 2016. Three irrigation treatments were applied to all crops: reclaimed water irrigation, groundwater irrigation and alternative irrigation with reclaimed water and groundwater (1:1, v/v). The results showed that the concentrations of NP, BPA, and OP in the topsoil were 0.02-0.54, 0.004-0.06, and ND-9.9×10-3mg/kg, respectively; the corresponding values in agricultural products were 0.007-0.70, 0.004-0.24, and ND-1.08mg/kg, respectively. The concentration of NP in the topsoil and agricultural products and that of BPA in the agricultural products were all less than the recommended limits. The yields of wheat, maize, vegetables were 4.35-7.08, 1.03-6.46, and 10.9-67.0t/ha, respectively. The bioaccumulation factors (BCFs) of OP, NP, and BPA for cereals were 0.7-4.77, 0.16-4.59, and 1.3-23.9, respectively; the corresponding values in vegetables were 0.0-4.53 (except cucumber and eggplant), 0.38-12.6, and 0.57-24.3, respectively. No significant differences in phenol concentrations, BCFs, or yields of wheat and vegetables were observed among the three irrigation treatments. In conclusion, compared with groundwater irrigation, reclaimed water irrigation in this experiment did not significantly affect phenol concentrations in the topsoil and agricultural products as well as BCFs and yields of wheat and vegetables. However, because the quality of reclaimed water may vary across collected areas, additional experiments are warranted to analyze the effects of reclaimed water irrigation on the risk of phenol contamination.

Determination of Snowmelt Water Quality in Outdoor Green Areas: A Case Study at Van Province (Turkey)

Freshwater resources are used for many purposes such as drinking, tap water, industrial usage and agricultural irrigation. Although unpolluted surface waters and groundwater are preferred for the irrigation of landscape plants in parks and gardens, snowmelt water is generally ignored. Like other precipitation types, snow can absorb solid and liquid substances in the atmosphere and it can rain on the earth with its natural chemical structure changed. Also, this water from snowmelt which includes different chemicals can enter surface waters and groundwater resources. In this study, the snowmelt water quality in outdoor green areas of the Van Province was examined. Some physico-chemical features (pH, conductivity, salinity, Ca, Mg, total hardness, Cl, NO3 -N, NO2 -N, SO4 , and PO4 ) of the snow samples were taken at monthly intervals from six sampling stations between the dates of December 2019 - February 2020. Also, metal ion concentrations (Cd, Pb, As, Cu, Cr, Co, Ni, Zn, Fe, Mn, B, Se, Ba, Al, Na, Be, V, Mo, Si, K, Sr, Ag, Sb, Tl) and the values of SAR (Sodium Adsorption Ratio) and Na% in some sampling stations, which have intense industrial and settlements located in the area, were determined to evaluate the water quality level of the snowmelt water. While, it was observed that some parameters values exceeded the first quality level when compared with the quality levels of the surface water resources control regulation of Turkey and the rates in irrigation water quality values, a general evaluation of the results showed that snowmelt can be alternative irrigation water for plants. Also, the species of the landscape plants in the studied area were identified and the possible effects of the parameters on the development of the plants were discussed.