Alpine Musk Deer Research Articles

Behavioral Aspects of Captive Alpine Musk Deer during Non-mating Season: Gender Differences and Monthly Patterns

The objective of the present study was to determine gender-related and month-related behavioral differences in captive alpine musk deer. The study was conducted at Xinglongshan Musk Deer Farm (XMDF) of Xinglongshan National Nature Reserve in Gansu Province of western China. The integrated method of focal sampling and all occurrence recording was utilized to quantify the behavioural patterns of 45 captive alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus) during non-mating season (from August 1 st to October 25 th ), and the behavioural durations of 12 behavioural patterns such as standing-gazing were recorded. The behavioural modes were compared to explore the potential differences between females and males, and the monthly behavioural modes for males and females were analyzed. Our results showed that the captive female deer in XMDF could compensate the energy lost in pregnancy, parturition and lactation through improving its ingestive efficiency. In order to be more sensitive to the changing environment, females expressed more standing-gazing (SG: 67.38±12.69 s) and moving (MO; 27.41±5.02 s), but less bedding (BE: 42.32±11.35 s) than male deer (SG: 56.43±9.19 s; MO: 19.23±4.64 s; BE: 96.14±15.71 s). Furthermore, females perform more affinitive interaction (AI: 7.89±4.81 s) but less ano-genital sniffing (AS: 0.24±0.13 s) and agonistic behaviour (CI: 0.57±0.26 s) than males (AI: 1.45±1.09 s; AS: 0.45±0.29 s; CI: 1.42±0.67 s). The females expressed ingestion more in October (132.31±27.47 s) than in August (28.80±18.44 s) and September (45.1±10.84 s), and the males performed Ano-genital sniffing (AS: 1.79±1.14 s) and self-directed behaviour (SD: 12.61±5.03 s) significantly more in October than in August (AS: 0 s; SD: 0.62±0.17 s) and September (AS: 0.02±0.01 s; SD: 0.17±0.15 s). Moreover, male musk deer increased the intension of ano-genital sniffing, agonistic behaviour and tail rubbing behaviour, which were related to sexual activities. (Key Words : In Captivity, Alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus), Non-mating Season, Behavioural Characteristics)

Assessing mammal distribution and abundance in intricate eastern Himalayan habitats of Khangchendzonga, Sikkim, India

We assessed distribution and abundance of mammals in dense, rugged eastern Himalayan habitats of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (BR), Sikkim, India, from April 2008 to May 2010, using field methods and remote cameras under varying rain and snow conditions. We report the occurrence of 42 mammals including 18 species that have high global conservation significance. Three leopards (Panthera uncia, Panthera pardus, Neofelis nebulosa), Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus chanco), wild dog (Cuon alpinus), red panda (Ailurus fulgens), Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), and two musk deer species (Moschus chrysogaster, M. fuscus) were recorded. Species number decreased with increasing elevation, 22 were recorded in temperate habitats, 18 in subalpine and 11 in alpine. The yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula) and black bear were found to have the most diverse distribution extending from temperate to alpine. Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) was the most abundant carnivore (8.982.31 photo capture/100 days) while goral (Naemorhedus goral) was the most abundant prey (9.145.27). Camera trap detected most of the mammals of the intensive study area (35/39). Considering the benefits and limitations, we recommend application of camera trapping along with sign surveys for monitoring of mammals in Khangchendzonga BR for effective conservation.

The Effect of Rearing Experience on the Behavior Patterns of Captive Male Alpine Musk Deer

The Effect of Rearing Experience on the Behavior Patterns of Captive Male Alpine Musk Deer

Summer habitat selection of alpine musk deer in Xinglongshan National Nature Reserve, Northwestern China

During July and August from 2006 to 2008, summer habitat selection was studied in Alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus) in Xinglongshan National Natural Reserve in northwestern China. In total, seventy one musk deer utilized habitat plots and 246 random habitat plots were surveyed. Seventeen habitat characteristics were recorded and compared between the two habitat types, using Mann-Whitney U test and chi-square to compare the differences between utilized and random habitat plots, and principal component analysis (PCA) to determine the main factors influencing the habitat selection of musk deer. Mann-Whitney U test and chi-square was conducted to test whether there was significant difference between utilized and random plots. The results showed that musk deer prefers habitat with taller arbor height (7.57 +/- 0.83 ) m, higher food-plants abundance (12.97 +/- 1.80), increasing foliage cover for concealment, lower water dispersion, and higher anthropogenic disturbance. Furthermore, PCA results suggested that the arbor characteristics (arbor canopy and arbor DBH), altitude characteristic, food characteristics (ground-plant cover and food-plant abundance) and shrub characteristics (shrub canopy, shrub height and related arbor density) influence summer habitat selection patterns of alpine musk deer in Xinglongshan National Nature Reserve. The general pattern of summer habitat utilization and selection of alpine musk deer is an adaptive strategy to the changing food, concealment, water source and the physical condition of summer habitat.

Preliminary findings of behavioral patterns in captive alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus) and prospects for future conservation

Captive farming of alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus) in China has been used for conservation and harvesting of musk since the mid 1950s. Despite this long history, management practices and captive breeding have been primarily based on trial and error due to lack of behavioral and ecological information about this vulnerable species. Understanding behavioral patterns plays a vital part in determining appropriate management systems; hence the aim of this study was to determine the effect of captivity on behavioral patterns of alpine musk deer by comparing wild-caught and the captive-born alpine musk deer. From August 2002 to January 2003, the behavioral patterns of 30 wild-caught (WC) and 15 captive-bred (CB) adult alpine musk deer were recorded at Xinglongshan Musk Deer Farm (XMDF), located in Xinglongshan National Nature Reserve, Gansu province, China. Focal sampling was used to observe the frequencies of 12 behavior categories. The behavioral patterns of WC and CB musk deer were found to be similar; however, when gender was considered, male WC deer showed a significantly higher frequency of agonistic interaction. These preliminary results suggest that captivity has had no immediate impact on the behavioral patterns of captive alpine musk deer despite 10 generations of captivity. Therefore, the alpine musk deer is not suited for domestication and further investigation into the effectiveness of musk deer farming for the purpose of harvesting musk should be undertaken.

Seasonal variation in the behavior of captive alpine musk deer, Moschus sifanicus, in Xinglongshan Musk Deer Farm, of China

Musk deer farming has the potential to be an effective conservation tool for the protection of musk deer as well as the production of valuable musk. To be successful, this requires a thorough understanding of the behavior of captive musk deer in order to improve their reproductive success and management. Between August 2005 to January 2006, the behavior sampling of 19 male and 13 female captive alpine musk deer, Moschus sifanicus Buchner, 1891, was used to examine the durations of twelve behavioral characteristics during the pre-rut (August to October) and rut seasons (November to January). Both males and females exhibited some seasonal variation in behavior. Males rested and fed more during the pre-rut than the rut and spent more time walking, fighting, and standing alert during the rut. Females spent more time feeding, ruminating, and interacting non-aggressively with other individuals during the pre-rut and more time in agonistic interactions during the rut. The significance of these behavioral changes and their association with husbandry practices and farm management are discussed.

Restoring a keystone predator may endanger a prey species in a human‐altered ecosystem: the return of the snow leopard to Sagarmatha National Park

AbstractTwenty‐five years ago, the snow leopardUncia uncia, an endangered large cat, was eliminated from what is now Sagarmatha National Park (SNP). Heavy hunting pressure depleted that area of most medium–large mammals, before it became a park. After three decades of protection, the cessation of hunting and the recovery of wild ungulate populations, snow leopards have recently returned (four individuals). We have documented the effects of the return of the snow leopard on the population of its main wild prey, the Himalayan tahrHemitragus jemlahicus, a ‘near‐threatened’ caprin. Signs of snow leopard presence were recorded and scats were collected along a fixed trail (130 km) to assess the presence and food habits of the snow leopard in the Park, from 2004 to 2006. Himalayan tahr, the staple of the diet, had a relative occurrence of 48% in summer and 37% in autumn, compared with the next most frequent prey, musk deerMoschus chrysogaster(summer: 20%; autumn: 15%) and cattle (summer: 15%; autumn: 27%). In early summer, the birth rate of tahr (young‐to‐female ratio: 0.8–0.9) was high. The decrease of this ratio to 0.1–0.2 in autumn implied that summer predation concentrated on young tahr, eventually altering the population by removing the kid cohort. Small populations of wildCaprinae, for example the Himalayan tahr population in SNP, are sensitive to stochastic predation events and may be led to almost local extinction. If predation on livestock keeps growing, together with the decrease of Himalayan tahr, retaliatory killing of snow leopards by local people may be expected, and the snow leopard could again be at risk of local extinction. Restoration of biodiversity through the return of a large predator has to be monitored carefully, especially in areas affected by humans, where the lack of important environmental components, for example key prey species, may make the return of a predator a challenging event.

The relationship between the behavioral mode of endangered female musk deer and reproduction potential next year

This study was conducted at the Xinglongshan Musk Deer Farm, Gansu Province, northwestern China, between June 2004 and January 2005. Focal sampling and all occurrence surveying was used to record the behavior of 42 female captive Alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus) in the lead up to the 2005 breeding season. The frequencies of 12 behavior categories were recorded and the behavioral patterns were compared between successful breeding females (n = 28) and barren females (n = 14). Results indicated that, during nonmating season (August to October), the females who were barren in the following season, demonstrated more affinitive and self-directed behavior as compared with successful breeding females. Tail pasting behaviour was expressed only by successful breeding females, and was observed only within the mating season (from November to March). These findings have important implications in captive breeding programs and improving musk deer farming throughout China.

Behavioral patterns of captive alpine musk deer: sex-specific behavior comparisons

The aim of this study was to document the behavior of captive alpine musk deer and to determine if daily behavior patterns varied between females and males. From August 2002 to January 2003, focal sampling was used to observe 32 adult captive alpine musk deer (13 female and 19 male) at Xinglongshan Musk Deer Farm (XMDF), Xinglongshan National Nature Reserve, Gansu Province. Results indicated similar behavior patterns for males and females, with only two out of 12 recorded behaviors showing significant sex differences. In comparison to females, males rested for a longer duration and exhibited tail pasting more frequently. This study also provided the first recording of tail pasting by female musk deer.

Relationship Between Behavioral Frequency and Reproductive Potential of Female Alpine Musk Deer in Captivity

Between June 2005 and February 2006, focal sampling and all occurrence behavior recording were used to quantify the behavioral patterns of captive female alpine musk deer ( Moschus sifanicus) at Xinglongshan Musk Deer Farm, Gansu Province, China. Copulation success was used to differentiate individuals into two groups (successful and unsuccessful) and to provide a basis for behavioral comparisons, throughout both mating (rut) and non mating seasons. The results indicated significant differences between the behavior patterns of successful and unsuccessful females; however, the reproductive season played an important environmental factor. Pooling results across reproductive seasons, successfully copulating females showed significantly higher frequencies of vigilance and lower frequency of feeding behavior as compared with unsuccessfully copulating females. In the non-mating season, unsuccessfully copulating females had higher frequency of self-directed behavior, environment sniffing, and were less aggressive than successful copulating females. Furthermore, females who were successful at copulating also demonstrated tail-pasting behavior; however, this only occurred during the rut season. The results of this study can improve management practices for musk deer farms through increasing mating success and reducing maintenance costs. Furthermore, variation in behavior may also be used as a predictor of copulation success and reproductive potential, whereby females can be grouped and separated according to their reproductive history and past reproduction success.

Seasonal behavioral patterns of captive alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus): Rut and pre-rut comparisons

Alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus), well-known for their musk production, are endemic to western China. Due to historical unrestricted illegal hunting and habitat loss, captive farming has been employed as a means of conserving this endangered species and developing sustainable musk harvesting techniques. For captive animals, an understanding of behavioral characteristics is vital to improve management practices. This study addressed a lack of information regarding the behavioral characteristics of alpine musk deer; specifically daily activity patterns in respect to gender and reproductive season. From August 2002 to January 2003, focal sampling was employed to observe 32 adult captive alpine musk deer (13 females and 19 males), at Xinglongshan Musk Deer Farm (XMDF), located at Xinglongshan National Nature Reserve, Gansu Province, China. Results indicated that the general behavioral patterns were similar between female and male captive alpine musk deer throughout both reproductive and non-reproductive seasons (rut and pre-rut season). Both male and female alpine musk deer demonstrated tail-pasting behavior during rut season, a previously male-only behavior trait. Female musk deer also rested comparatively more than males during pre-rut season.

Relationship between estrus cycles and behavioral durations of captive female alpine musk deer

Owing to poor breeding success in captive alpine musk deer, an understanding of the behavioral patterns of musk deer in captivity is important. This study was conducted from June 2004 to January 2005 at the Xinglongshan Musk Deer Farm, which is located within Xinglongshan National Nature Reserve, Gansu Province, China. Focal sampling and continuous recording were used to observe the behaviors of 51 female alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus), 42 of which had completed a single estrus cycle and nine of which had completed two or more estrus cycles. All animals were adults that had been born and raised in captivity. The durations of 12 behaviors, including environmental sniffing, moving and feeding, were recorded during the non-breeding seasons and behavioral patterns were compared. The behavioral patterns of females that had completed a single estrus cycle and females that had completed multiple estrus cycles were compared to assess potential behavioral differences. The results showed that females who had only one complete estrus cycle demonstrated more resting behavior, but less feeding and locomotor behavior than females who had completed multiple estrus cycles. Furthermore, single estrus cycle females demonstrated tail-rubbing during the breeding season. The results may yield useful information that can be used in developing better musk deer farming practices.

A conceptual ecological model of an isolated population of Alpine Musk Deer Moschus chrysogaster: conservation implications for Chinese musk deer

The reduction in numbers of Chinese musk deer (CMD) has been a loss to the Chinese traditional medical industry, and also to the world?s medical and perfume industries. The sharp decline of CMD has aroused global attention and there is an urgent need to establish the systematic theoretical fundamentals of ecology and conservation biology for musk deer in China. From October 1993 to September 2000, we investigated the abundance of Alpine Musk Deer Moschus chrysogater (AMD) in five isolated forests, and conducted ecological surveys of vegetation, food and water resources, snow-cover, predators, competitors, grazing, and poaching. Based on these data, a conceptual ecological model was proposed to address the population dynamics and conservation of these isolated populations. Our results showed that the densities and size of each population varied with environmental factors. There were four basic characteristics of AMD populations: isolation, crowdedness, vulnerability and ease of recoverability. The major climatic factors affecting AMD were snow cover and drought. Human activities had negative and positive effects on population survival and development of AMD. Reclamation, deforestation and overgrazing had negative effects, responsible for habitat destruction and increasing the impact of drought. Despite the decline in musk deer populations throughout China, high densities of AMD were found in the Xinglong Mountains and Shoulu Nature Reserve as a result of strict management. The decline of CMD could be attributed to two principal factors: the international smuggling of musk and the destruction of habitat by people. There is no doubt that poaching is the major cause of population decline of musk deer throughout China since the 1980s. We suggest ways to protect and recover musk deer populations in China. To conserve CMD more effectively, the administrative system must be reformed. In order to better control musk smuggling and Gansitao-poaching, China should consider lifting restrictions on the price of musk, inventing a musk detector, and training musk-detection dogs.

Recovery of snow leopard Uncia uncia in Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park, Nepal

From September to November 2004 we conducted surveys of snow leopard Uncia uncia signs in three major valleys in Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park in Nepal using the Snow Leopard Information Management System, a standardized survey technique for snow leopard research. We walked 24 transects covering c. 14 km and located 33 sites with 56 snow leopard signs, and 17 signs incidentally in other areas. Snow leopards appear to have re-inhabited the Park, following their disappearance c. 40 years ago, apparently following the recovery of Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus and musk deer Moschus chrysogaster populations. Taken together the locations of all 73 recent snow leopard signs indicate that the species is using predominantly grazing land and shrubland/open forest at elevations of 3,000–5,000 m, habitat types that are also used by domestic and wild ungulates. Sagarmatha is the homeland of c. 3,500 Buddhist Sherpas with >3,000 livestock. Along with tourism and associated developments in Sagarmatha, traditional land use practices could be used to ensure coexistence of livestock and wildlife, including the recovering snow leopards, and ensure the wellbeing of the Sherpas.

Socio-economic and ecological consequences of the ban on adventure tourism in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, western Himalaya

Prior to 1982, the uncontrolled mountaineering activities to the Nanda Devi peak led to the heavy destruction of the biological resources of the region in the form of poaching of wild animals, tree felling by expedition parties, collection of medicinal herbs and accumulation of garbage. To curb the biotic interference, the area was declared as Nanda Devi National Park (NDNP) and adventure tourism was stopped in 1982. Further in 1988, an area of 2236.74 km 2 was designated as Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR) with an inner core zone (NDNP) surrounded by a buffer zone. A ban on tourism activities, followed by the designation of NDBR directly helped in a significant improvement in forest cover and density. The better status of wild animals, including rare and endangered species such as musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) and blue sheep (Psuedois nayaur), is an indicator of such improvements. However, from a socio-economic point of view the loss of income from adventure tourism forced local people to migrate from the area, a phenomenon that was reflected in the human population trends, registering 15% decline between 1981 and 1991 and another 13% between 1991 and 1996. In the absence of alternative income sources, marginal agriculture and animal husbandry became the major sources of income for the locals. Nonetheless, the low density of human population kept the level of biotic pressure under control in NDBR. Promotion of eco-tourism and natural resource based employ- ment generation schemes are suggested to compensate for the economic loss to the local people and to maintain the biodiversity of NDBR.

The temporal estrous patterns of female alpine musk deer in captivity

From 1996 to 2000, we collected data about rutting habits of captive Alpine musk deer ( Moschus sifanicus) in the Breeding Center of Alpine Musk Deer (BCAMD) located in the Xinglongshan National Nature Reserve of China. We examined the temporal rutting patterns to determine the timing and synchrony of estrus. From 1997 to 2000, the temporal estrous patterns remained relatively constant across the years but in 1996, the animals entered estrus later and the estrous season was longer than in other years possibly due to the animal being transported in that year. In total, the estrus period of captive musk deer in BCAMD occurred seasonally during 3 months of the year, but 66% of mating occurred in a month from 21 November to 21 December. The total estrous season (when 75% of mating occurred) was 36 days. When the possible factors affecting the temporal estrous patterns were analyzed, it appeared that the rutting of females was influenced by both social and seasonal factors. There were significant differences among the temporal estrous patterns of animals in different rows of enclosures, probably because of keeper effects and social interactions among females within a row of enclosures. Female age can affect timing of estrus: females older than 5.5 years entered estrus earlier than younger age classes. The reproductive success in the previous year was not related to rutting patterns. The temporal estrous patterns were not significantly different between the captive females of the wild-caught deer and their first-generation offspring. Females with more estrous cycles were less likely to enter estrus earlier than those with one or two cycles.

Conservation status and causes of decline of musk deer (Moschus spp.) in China

Five species of musk deer (Forest musk deer Moschus berezovskii, Alpine musk deer M. sifanicus, Black musk deer M. fuscus, Himalayan musk deer M. chrysogaster and Siberian musk deer M. moschiferus) occur throughout 17 provinces in China, and all were listed in the second category of the Chinese State Key Protected Wildlife List in 1998. Among these species, the Forest musk deer has the widest distribution, and its population is estimated at about 100,000–200,000 individuals in the wild. Additionally, there are about 100,000 Alpine musk deer and 2000 Siberian musk deer. As for the Black musk deer and Himalayan musk deer, which occur only in parts of Yunnan Province and Tibet, their populations remain unknown but they can be estimated to be rare due to their narrow and limited distribution. Furthermore, there are some 1900 musk deer kept in farms in China. Generally, the musk deer population has been declining due to over-hunting for musk and to loss of habitats. However, the Chinese government is greatly concerned with wildlife protection today. A series of laws and regulations have been launched and many natural reserves and national parks have been established as refuges for this animal, most of which, are within the musk deer's range, and should have positive effects for musk deer conservation.

Effect of Habitat Fragmentation and Isolation on the Population of Alpine Musk Deer

The alpine musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) is a key species of some terrestrial ecosystems, it has an important economic and conservative significance as a kind of medical animal in China. Due to the interaction between natural forces and human disturbance, the habitats of alpine musk deer are fragmented and isolated in different mountains and the populations are confronted with many problems of survival. In this paper, we discuss the impact of habitat fragmentation and isolation on alpine musk deer populations based on the investigation on the population densities and sizes and environmental factors in different reserves, as well as on the analysis of its ecological adaptability. We found that the alpine musk deer has strong ecological adaptability; the population development of alpine musk deer may benefit from the reduction of the forest area and even from the fragmentation and isolation of the habitat to a certain extent. However, deforestion should not be encouraged only for the alpine musk deer population, but should also be based on the overall consideration of biodiversity conservation.

Biodiversity status of a protected area in West Himalaya: Askot Wildlife Sanctuary

SUMMARY Biodiversity of a protected area of West Himalaya (Askot Wildlife Sanctuary) was studied and analysed for landscape, faunal and floral diversity. The forest and pasture land, ideal habitats for the flora and fauna, covered nearly 52% and 12%, respectively, of total reported area. Among the fauna Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), thar (Himitragus jemlahicus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), koklas (Pucrassia macrolophas), monal (Lophophorus impejanus) and snow cock (Tetragalus tibetanus) are threatened species. Plant diversity is represented by 1262 species of vascular plants (Angiosperm 1112, Gymnosperm 7, Pteridophytes 143 taxa). Diversity of the species within families, genera, habitats, communities and along vertical gradient zone was analysed. Maximum diversity existed in the family Orchidaceae (120 taxa), genera Polystichum (13 taxa), altitude zone (1001–2000 m; 860 taxa), habitat (forest; 623 taxa) and community (Banj oak: 92 taxa). Seventy-one families were found to be monotypic. Species were further analysed for ethnobotanical use (medicine: 70, edible: 55, fodder: 115, fuel: 31, house building: 13 etc.), domesticated diversity (crops: 19, vegetables: 26, fruits: 16), agroforestry or marginal, threatened and endemic diversity. Similarity in species composition within the habitats indicated maximum similarity in areas of shrubberies and alpine meadows/ slopes (71.65%) and exposed open/grassy slopes and shady moist places (47.32%). 432 (34.2%) taxa are native to Indian Himalaya of which 24 are endemic and 235 are near endemics. 65.8% of taxa are represented in the neighbouring areas and other regions of the globe. Ten taxa occurring in the Sanctuary have been already recorded in the Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Conservation and management of species is focused.

Animal welfare in the musk deer

The Himalayan musk deer ( Moschus chrysogaster) is a primitive ruminant living in the remote high Himalayas. The male deer possesses a musk gland specialized for the production of musk which is one of the most valuable scented animal products—it is more expensive than gold. The deer have been commercially exploited for centuries for their precious musk pod. The musk is used for perfumes all over the world and also for traditional medicine in oriental countries. The deer originally ranged throughout the Himalayas from Afghanistan to Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Burma. At present they are found only in isolated areas due to heavy poaching and massive habitat destruction. This species is endangered and threatened with extinction. A procedure for musk extraction from live deer (without killing them) has been developed to help in the conservation of this species. In this regard, the extraction of musk was successfully conducted many times in the Kathmandu Zoo over a period of several years. Musk deer farms have been established in China, India and Nepal. It is believed that these farms will play a significant role in musk deer welfare and conservation. In addition, there is an urgent need to give this species total protection in national parks and wildlife reserves in order to preserve genetic diversity and maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems. In addition, there should be international control of the musk trade to aid in the survival of this species.