Alpine Countries Research Articles

Influence of altitude concerning the contamination of humus soils in the German Alps: a data evaluation approach using PyHasse

In an international project named MONARPOP (Monitoring Network in the Alpine Region for Persistent and other Organic Pollutants), selected chemicals in different environmental media were analysed in the years 2004 and 2005. Seventeen pesticides were chosen and analysed in humus and mineral soil in the German Alps. The samples were taken at different altitudes. In such a rather complex environmental datasets, it is often necessary to compare different sets of criteria and their influence on rankings. In the similarity analysis which is part of the theory of the Hasse diagram technique, we intend to calculate the similarity of different rankings. Furthermore, we perform a so-called dominance-dominance/dominance-separability method, followed by a sensitivity analysis, both subroutines in the newly developed PyHasse programme in order to find out if the concentration of the chemicals can be related to the altitudes at which the samples were taken. It can be demonstrated that the altitude has a considerable influence on the concentration of some organic chemicals in humus: The concentrations of some chemicals increase with the altitude. This increase shows certain irregularities for which several explication attempts including possible effects of atmospheric stratification phenomena in valleys have been made. These results should be complemented in further studies with MONARPOP monitoring data from other Alpine countries, e.g. Austria, Switzerland, Italy and Slovenia.

Should strategies for care of avalanche victims change?

Should strategies for care of avalanche victims change?

Climate and land-use changes affecting river sediment and brown trout in alpine countries—a review

Catch decline of freshwater fish has been recorded in several countries. Among the possible causes, habitat change is discussed. This article focuses on potentially increased levels of fine sediments going to rivers and their effects on gravel-spawning brown trout. Indications of increased erosion rates are evident from land-use change in agriculture, changes in forest management practices, and from climate change. The latter induces an increase in air and river water temperatures, reduction in permafrost, changes in snow dynamics and an increase in heavy rain events. As a result, an increase in river sediment is likely. Suspended sediment may affect fish health and behaviour directly. Furthermore, sediment loads may clog gravel beds impeding fish such as brown trout from spawning and reducing recruitment rates. To assess the potential impact on fine sediments, knowledge of brown trout reproductive needs and the effects of sediment on brown trout health were evaluated. We critically reviewed the literature and included results from ongoing studies to answer the following questions, focusing on recent decades and rivers in alpine countries. Have climate change and land-use change increased erosion and sediment loads in rivers? Do we have indications of an increase in riverbed clogging? Are there indications of direct or indirect effects on brown trout from increased suspended sediment concentrations in rivers or from an increase in riverbed clogging? Rising air temperatures have led to more intensive precipitation in winter months, earlier snow melt in spring, and rising snow lines and hence to increased erosion. Intensification of land use has supported erosion in lowland and pre-alpine areas in the second half of the twentieth century. In the Alps, however, reforestation of abandoned land at high altitudes might reduce the erosion risk while intensification on the lower, more easily accessible slopes increases erosion risk. Data from laboratory experiments show that suspended sediments affect the health and behaviour of fish when available in high amounts. Point measurements in large rivers indicate no common lethal threat and suspended sediment is rarely measured continuously in small rivers. However, effects on fish can be expected under environmentally relevant conditions. River bed clogging impairs the reproductive performance of gravel-spawning fish. Overall, higher erosion and increased levels of fine sediment going into rivers are expected in future. Additionally, sediment loads in rivers are suspected to have considerably impaired gravel bed structure and brown trout spawning is impeded. Timing of discharge is put forward and is now more likely to affect brown trout spawning than in previous decades. Reports on riverbed clogging from changes in erosion and fine sediment deposition patterns, caused by climate change and land-use change are rare. This review identifies both a risk of increases in climate erosive forces and fine sediment loads in rivers of alpine countries. Increased river discharge and sediment loads in winter and early spring could be especially harmful for brown trout reproduction and development of young life stages. Recently published studies indicate a decline in trout reproduction from riverbed clogging in many rivers in lowlands and alpine regions. However, the multitude of factors in natural complex ecosystems makes it difficult to address a single causative factor. Further investigations into the consequences of climate change and land-use change on river systems are needed. Small rivers, of high importance for the recruitment of gravel-spawning fish, are often neglected. Studies on river bed clogging are rare and the few existing studies are not comparable. Thus, there is a strong need for the development of methods to assess sediment input and river bed clogging. As well, studies on the effects to fish from suspended sediments and consequences of gravel beds clogging under natural conditions are urgently needed.

The Application of the Risk Concept to Debris Flow Hazards

AbstractDebris flows present a serious hazard in alpine regions, where natural environment meets the space of human interest such as settlements and infrastructure. In the past various measures have been developed to protect human life and property. However, a complete protection from damage is not possible, also due to limited financial resources of public fund providers. Therefore, the concept of risk management was adopted from technical sciences as an alternative and sustainable protection strategy, and was increasingly implemented in Alpine countries within the last decades. This paper provides an introduction to the state of the art in risk analysis for debris flow hazards, including an overview of different but complementary methods for debris flow risk analysis at different scales.

Market power in the European electricity market—The impacts of dry weather and additional transmission capacity

This paper uses a static computational game theoretic model of a fully opened European electricity market and can take strategic interaction among electricity-producing firms into account. The model is run for a number of scenarios: first, in the baseline under perfect competition, the prices differ due to the presence of various generation technologies and a limited ability to exchange electricity among countries. In addition, when large firms exercise market power, the model runs indicate that prices are the highest in countries where the number of firms is low. Second, dry weather would increase the prices in the hydro-rich Nordic countries followed by the Alpine countries. The price response would be about 20% higher with market power. Third, more transmission capacity would lower the prices in countries with high prices and it also reduces the impact of market power. Hence, more transmission capacity can improve market competitiveness.

The Turnip (<i>Brassica rapa</i> L. subsp. <i>rapa</i>) in Eastern Tyrol (Lienz district; Austria)

The turnip (Brassica rapa L. ssp. rapa), has been a very important crop in the Alps for centuries. It’s main uses were food and fodder. The fermented turnips (Ruebenkraut) used to be, as was sauerkraut, a very important winter foodstuff. The importance of turnips in Alpine countries is shown by the fact that they were even shown on the coat of arms belonging to noble families. Today, however, only a few remaining farmers still grow and process turnips. These farmers were approached in 1997/98 within an ethnobotanical inventory and 2003/04 with semistructured interviews covering agronomy, processing and trade, as well as the cultural context of the turnip. One farmer was chosen for in-depth interviews and participant observation during the cultivation and processing of turnips. The results show that the few remaining farmers still hold the full knowledge necessary to successfully produce fermented turnip, including soil management, sowing, crop management, harvest, storage, processing and the propagation of seeds. In the families, where production of lactic acid fermented turnips is economically important, this knowledge is still passed on to younger members of the family. The survival of the cultivation of turnip by a few farmers is closely related to the high local appreciation of the specific taste for fermented turnips whereas the various uses and different stories belonging to the cultural context of the turnip are in danger of disappearing from the region.

The biological flora of Central Europe: Campanula thyrsoides L.

Campanula thyrsoides is one of the few monocarpic perennials of temperate alpine mountain ecosystems and native to the European Alps and adjacent mountain ranges. Individuals are rare but locally abundant and the species is protected in most of the Alpine countries. The exceptionally yellow-flowering member of the Campanulaceae grows preferably in alpine meadows with a moderate disturbance regime on limestone or carbonate bearing schists. Traditionally regarded as a rosette-forming ‘‘biennial’’, individuals usually flower after 8 years and grow considerably older at higher altitudes. This article reviews the taxonomy, morphology, distribution, ecology, life cycle, population biology, and genetics of this species as well as its status in the European countries.

Towards an empirical vulnerability function for use in debris flow risk assessment

Abstract. In quantitative risk assessment, risk is expressed as a function of the hazard, the elements at risk and the vulnerability. From a natural sciences perspective, vulnerability is defined as the expected degree of loss for an element at risk as a consequence of a certain event. The resulting value is dependent on the impacting process intensity and the susceptibility of the elements at risk, and ranges from 0 (no damage) to 1 (complete destruction). With respect to debris flows, the concept of vulnerability – though widely acknowledged – did not result in any sound quantitative relationship between process intensities and vulnerability values so far, even if considerable loss occurred during recent years. To close this gap and establish this relationship, data from a well-documented debris flow event in the Austrian Alps was used to derive a quantitative vulnerability function applicable to buildings located on the fan of the torrent. The results suggest a second order polynomial function to fit best to the observed damage pattern. Vulnerability is highly dependent on the construction material used for exposed elements at risk. The buildings studied within the test site were constructed by using brick masonry and concrete, a typical design in post-1950s building craft in alpine countries. Consequently, the presented intensity-vulnerability relationship is applicable to this construction type within European mountains. However, a wider application of the presented method to additional test sites would allow for further improvement of the results and would support an enhanced standardisation of the vulnerability function.

SEA in local land use planning — first experience in the Alpine States

In the Alpine area, planning decisions can result in far-reaching consequences because of the high sensitivity of the Alpine ecosystems. This article is based on two hypotheses: (1) The Alpine states/regions were aware of their sensitive environment and therefore recognized the necessity of introducing a comparable instrument to assess local land use planning. (2) By introducing this differentiated assessment tool, namely SEA, an increase in costs may be the consequence. However, better and more transparent planning can contribute to the enhancement of planning standards. To reveal the validity of these assumptions the legal implementation in the Alpine countries Austria, Germany, Italy and France was examined as well as first practical experience resulting from the determined procedures. The results of the implementation process in the four states were compared and discussed on the basis of selected process steps of SEA.

Is “Culture” Still Relevant to Regional Policy?

The Alps, in the heart of Europe, are obviously an asset, but they also pose a serious challenge: some Alpine regions lag quite far behind economically, mainly because of the disadvantages of location. At the same time, their fragile ecological and cultural systems suffer from the unbalanced economic exploitation inherent in the “open access” policy formulated by the European Union's (EU) Lisbon Strategy. The Alpine Convention, a transnational treaty signed by all Alpine countries, is designed to guide progress in a sustainable way. Regional policy is a key tool for achieving this ambitious goal—a field of action to foster progress in a comprehensive way. Regional policy programs are run by all Alpine countries under the umbrella of the EU Cohesion Policy. In this context, the EU research project known as DIAMONT was designed to gain experience with benchmarking tools to support the Alpine Convention's efforts to monitor sustainable development. One research module focused on the question of the extent to which cultural factors still have an impact on regional policy and development at large. The results of this research are presented here, with a discussion of the influence of cultural factors, values, and attitudes about regional development.

An Overview of Atmospheric Deposition Chemistry over the Alps: Present Status and Long-term Trends

Several research programs monitoring atmospheric deposition have been launched in the Alpine countries in the last few decades. This paper uses data from previous and ongoing projects to: (i) investigate geographical variability in wet deposition chemistry over the Alps; (ii) assess temporal trends of the major chemical variables in response to changes in the atmospheric emission of pollutants; (iii) discuss the potential relationship between the status of atmospheric deposition and its effects on forest ecosystems in the alpine and subalpine area, focusing particularly on nitrogen input. We also present results of studies performed at a local level on specific topics such as long-term changes in lead deposition and the role of occult deposition in total nitrogen input. The analysis performed here highlights the marked geographical variability of atmospheric deposition in the Alpine region. Apart from some evidence of geographically limited effects, due to local sources, no obvious gradients were identified in the major ion deposition. The highest ionic loads were recorded in areas in the foothills of the Alps, such as the pre-alpine area in North-Western Italy and the area of Canton Ticino, Switzerland. Trend analysis shows a widespread decrease in the acidity of precipitation in the last 15–20 years as a consequence of the reduced emission of S compounds. On the other hand, nitrate concentrations in rain have not changed so much, and ammonium has decreased significantly only at the Austrian sampling sites. The deposition of N is still well above the estimated critical loads of nutrient N at some forest sites in the alpine and subalpine areas, thus confirming the critical situation of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems regarding N inputs. Existing data highlights the importance of continuously monitoring atmospheric deposition chemistry in the Alpine area, taking account of acidifying elements, nutrients and other pollutants such as heavy metals and organic compounds. There is also a need for unifying sampling and analytical methods in order to obtain comparable data from the different regions of the Alps.

Strengthening Cooperation Strategies in Mountain Areas

In the context of European spatial development, mountainous regions are characterized by specific development issues and by limitations on regional exchange. The EU Community Initiative Interreg IIIB Alpine Space Program (ASP) is a focused instrument to strengthen transnational cooperation and promote balanced development, covering the geographical area of the core mountainous area and the neighboring interlinked regions of the seven Alpine countries. The priorities of its activities are the impact of climate change on risk management, polycentric spatial development and the support of sustainable transport systems. Almost 60 projects have been approved and substantive efforts for cooperation and implementation of innovative pilot actions have taken place.

Development issues for the Alps : survey of convergences and divergences in their meaning

Abstract : The article identifies development issues for the Alps and examines their meaning. Conducted within the framework of the DIAMONT project of the Interreg IIIb Alpine Space program, the study is based on an investigation involving a panel of experts from different Alpine countries. The investigation identifies those problems that play an essential role in Alpine development issues, some of which have a basically local dimension, such as the marginalisation of peripheral rural zones, while others are of a more general nature, concerning all areas of the Alps.

Alpska politika in nevladne organizacije

Varstvo okolja v Alpah je eden od glavnih ciljev številnih nevladnih organizacij v alpskih državah. Tudi v Sloveniji se je v devetdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja razvilo delovanje civilne družbe, ki je prispevalo k višji stopnji varstva okolja. Ena takih organizacij je CIPRA Slovenija, ki je kot del CIPRE International tudi soudeležena pri nastajanju in sprejemanju Pogodbe o varovanju Alp-Alpske konvencije.

Japanese Tourists in the Alpine Countries

Japanese Tourists in the Alpine Countries

The political practice of mountain forest restoration—comparing restoration concepts in four European countries

This paper compares the Alpine countries of Switzerland, Bavaria (Germany), Austria and Slovenia, and investigates how institutions influence the development and application of mountain forest restoration concepts. In practice, different restoration approaches have been developed in these countries depending on the distribution of forest ownership and the administrative arrangements. According to the different institutional settings, different actors are involved in the policy networks. With their different interests and value systems, these actors determine the goals, the design and the outcome of restoration programmes. Policy change might become effective by including new participants in the network. As the need for restoration is often caused by unsustainable forest management, the change of institutional arrangements is crucial to facilitate advanced management systems, which aim at avoiding degradation in the future.

The political practice of mountain forest restoration?comparing restoration concepts in four European countries

This paper compares the Alpine countries of Switzerland, Bavaria (Germany), Austria and Slovenia, and investigates how institutions influence the development and application of mountain forest restoration concepts. In practice, different restoration approaches have been developed in these countries depending on the distribution of forest ownership and the administrative arrangements. According to the different institutional settings, different actors are involved in the policy networks. With their different interests and value systems, these actors determine the goals, the design and the outcome of restoration programmes. Policy change might become effective by including new participants in the network. As the need for restoration is often caused by unsustainable forest management, the change of institutional arrangements is crucial to facilitate advanced management systems, which aim at avoiding degradation in the future.

Field management of avalanche victims

The median annual mortality from snow avalanches registered in Europe and North America 1981–1998 was 146 (range 82–226); trend stable in Alpine countries (r=−0.29; P=0.24), increasing in North America (r=0.68; P=0.002). Swiss data over the same period document 1886 avalanche victims, with an overall mortality rate of 52.4% in completely-buried, versus 4.2% in partially-, or non-buried, persons. Survival probability in completely-buried victims in open areas (n=638) plummets from 91% 18 min after burial to 34% at 35 min, then remains fairly constant until a second drop after 90 min. Likewise, survival probability for completely-buried victims in buildings or on roads (n=97) decreases rapidly following burial initially, but as from 35 min it is significantly higher than that for victims in open areas, with a maximum difference in respective survival probability (31% versus 7%) from 130 to 190 min (P<0.001). Standardised guidelines are introduced for the field management of avalanche victims. Strategy by rescuers confronted with the triad hypoxia, hypercapnia and hypothermia is primarily governed by the length of snow burial and victim's core temperature, in the absence of obviously fatal injuries. With a burial time ⩽35 min survival depends on preventing asphyxia by rapid extrication and immediate airway management; cardiopulmonary resuscitation for unconscious victims without spontaneous respiration. With a burial time >35 min combating hypothermia becomes of paramount importance. Thus, gentle extrication, ECG and core temperature monitoring and body insulation are mandatory; unresponsive victims should be intubated and pulseless victims with core temperature <32°C (89.6°F) (prerequisites being an air pocket and free airways) transported with continuous cardiopulmonary resuscitation to a specialist hospital for extracorporeal re-warming.

Having new Eyes

********** title of this essay takes its theme from Marcel Proust's much-quoted remark, The only real voyage of discovery...consists not of seeking new landscapes but in having new eyes (O'Brien 1948, 181). Although landscapes I have seen since enrolling in my first geography graduate course in 1965 may be new to some, for me the major change that has occurred in the mountain landscapes of Asia--the I know best--is how people view them in new contexts, contexts aligned with mass media such as travel guides and television programs, globalization in any form, military and geopolitical engagements, and, above all, rapid accessibility by all forms of transportation and communications. Concomitant with the new perspectives is a countercurrent movement, a backwash from recidivists, as I call them, who wish to retreat into a geographical intellectual mode prevalent in past centuries, of a more primeval flavor where mountains are seen as a natural region and nineteenth-century modes of thought prevail. Much of this relapse is caused by the decline of intensive field research by practitioners of geography whose opaque vision is distorted by urban life. Patent-leather-shoe geography has won out over dirty-boots geography. My own current living arrangements prejudice my remarks. Although I focus on the interface of South and Central Asia in this essay, I now live in a mountain settlement in the Sierra Nevada in what the futurist Joel Kotkin calls a postmodern (2000, 11). Seeing a mountain landscape through a postmodern prism illuminates advances in telecommunications, combined with the general deurbanization of America, thereby introducing a Fourth to the Veyret Grenoble Stage Model about the development of mountain landscapes (1972). Now Europeans of the Alpine countries come to the Sierra on fieldwork assignments to investigate how people in this modern-day Valhalla construct their transformed habitats. These new settlements are not unique in form and function just to American regions of New England, North Carolina, the Rockies, or elsewhere in the West; recent fieldwork reveals similar settlements in the Himalayan foothills of India. Fieldwork, then, like so much of the methodology of geography, has to c onsider the implications of globalization; there are, however, consistent conditions that are always with the field researcher. Fred Kniffen, a longtime cultural geographer of the American scene, once remarked that geographers were just intelligent country boys. This statement--and Mr. Kniffen, if he were alive today, would agree--is now modified to include women and even some urban practitioners. underlying message in the statement, however, is sustained. Geographers need to have some smarts in engaging with a variety of situations in a list of never-ending cultural and biophysical environments. How a geographer acquires the skills to accomplish satisfactory fieldwork under certain conditions is an ideal topic for neophyte geographers. It is to be hoped that my reminiscences will assist younger geographers and, at the same time, offer some information to be exchanged among fellow practitioners of fieldwork. A young geographer could read with great profit the reminiscences of a cultural anthropologist (Richardson 1975). In this essay I spend some time discussing my teenage years because I believe this formative, largely self-direc ted period set me on my quest for a satisfying life. I like to think of Sal Paradise's dictum in that signal ode to American life (which I read at nineteen), Jack Kerouac's On the Road, Our one and noble function of the time, move (1976, 133). This essay also emphasizes the costs of my life as a geographer. THE EARLY YEARS Growing up in wartime and postwar Scotland provided a fundamental lesson in tolerating physical discomfort, an essential requirement of all field-workers. Short pants were de rigueur for every school day even in the occasional snow periods. …

Solutions and problems when applying qualitative and quantitative information from weather radar

Based on experience made in various Alpine countries, the advantage of radar to grasp the present weather situation is discussed (e.g. for nowcasting purposes). Often, we spend too much effort in discussing sophisticated algorithms for solving special aspects. When aiming to apply radar data in a quantitative way, errors involved (such as shielding, clutter, beam-resolution, attenuation, variability of the Z-R-relationship and calibration) may let us forget the dominant advantage of radar: to tell us in detail when and where something is happening. Of course we should make the best estimate of e.g. the rain arriving at ground level. But for many applications a rough estimate of the precipitation intensity (together with its uncertainty) may already be helpful and more realistic, than to try obtaining the accuracy needed to distinguish a “disastrous” precipitation from “just a strong” one.