Alpha Enhancement Research Articles

The relationship between the superior frontal cortex and alpha oscillation in a flanker task: Simultaneous recording of electroencephalogram (EEG) and near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)

Activity in the alpha band of the electroencephalogram (EEG) reflects functional inhibition of the cerebral cortex. The superior frontal cortex (SFC) is known to control alpha activity. Based on this relationship between SFC and alpha, we hypothesized that SFC controlled alpha mediates proactive control over interference. In this study, we examined the relationship between SFC and alpha in the flanker task by simultaneously recording EEG and near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Forty participants performed a flanker task with occasional (compatible 75%, incompatible 25%) and successive (incompatible 100%) conditions. In the occasional condition, larger SFC activity was related to pre-stimulus alpha enhancement under occipital electrodes. This is consistent with a model in which SFC enhances pre-stimulus alpha activity, leading to proactive control over interference. However, we could not detect a correlation between SFC activity and alpha activity in the successive condition. Active inhibition may have been reduced by a need to continuously inhibit brain regions associated with the irrelevant information. This may have reduced the role of the SFC in controlling alpha activity. Based on these findings, we postulate that there are two cerebral mechanisms of proactive control over interference.

The SAMI Galaxy Survey: global stellar populations on the size–mass plane

We present an analysis of the global stellar populations of galaxies in the SAMI Galaxy Survey. Our sample consists of 1319 galaxies spanning four orders of magnitude in stellar mass and includes all morphologies and environments. We derive luminosity-weighted, single stellar population equivalent stellar ages, metallicities and alpha enhancements from spectra integrated within one effective radius apertures. Variations in galaxy size explain the majority of the scatter in the age--mass and metallicity--mass relations. Stellar populations vary systematically in the plane of galaxy size and stellar mass, such that galaxies with high stellar surface mass density are older, more metal-rich and alpha-enhanced than less dense galaxies. Galaxies with high surface mass densities have a very narrow range of metallicities, however, at fixed mass, the spread in metallicity increases substantially with increasing galaxy size (decreasing density). We identify residual correlations with morphology and environment. At fixed mass and size, galaxies with late-type morphologies, small bulges and low Sersic n are younger than early-type, high n, high bulge-to-total galaxies. Age and metallicity both show small residual correlations with environment; at fixed mass and size, galaxies in denser environments or more massive halos are older and somewhat more metal rich than those in less dense environments. We connect these trends to evolutionary tracks within the size--mass plane.

A dual mechanism underlying alpha lateralization in attentional orienting to mental representation

Numerous electrophysiological findings support the notion that selective attention modulates alpha oscillatory activity. Specifically, alpha enhancement and suppression can be dissociated in time and space. It is now accepted that selective attention operates in either the perceptual or the representational environments. Lateralized alpha activity resulting from directing attention to mental representations, might arise from a transient alpha desynchronization, as recent proposals hypothesized. However, the contribution of enhancement vs suppression, as well as their neural correlates to the lateralized alpha modulation remain unstudied. To investigate these questions, we recorded magnetoencephalography while participants performed a retrospective cueing paradigm. Time-frequency analysis revealed a larger transient alpha desynchronization for the sensors contralateral to the relevant items which originated from the ventral lateral occipital cortex. Additionally, greater ipsilateral alpha enhancement in the medial occipital cortex occurred later and was maintained until probe presentation. Based on these differences we reasoned that the former would reflect the allocation of selective attention to relevant items, while the later might signal the inhibition of the irrelevant external hemifield instead of irrelevant WM items. Altogether, our results suggest that alpha lateralization does not arise from a unitary phenomenon. Dissociated anatomical and temporal alpha activity might be signaling different functional roles.

A Neurocognitive Framework for Human Creative Thought.

We are an intensely creative species. Creativity is the fountainhead of our civilizations and a defining characteristic of what makes us human. But for all its prominence at the apex of human mental faculties, we know next to nothing about how brains generate creative ideas. With all previous attempts to tighten the screws on this vexed problem unsuccessful – right brains, divergent thinking, defocused attention, default mode network, alpha enhancement, prefrontal activation, etc. (Dietrich and Kanso, 2010) – the neuroscientific study of creativity finds itself in a theoretical arid zone that has perhaps no equal in psychology. We propose here a general framework for a fresh attack on the problem and set it out under 10 foundational concepts. Most of the ideas we favor are part and parcel of the standard conceptual toolbox of cognitive neuroscience but their combination and significance to creativity are original. By outlining, even in such broad strokes, the theoretical landscape of cognitive neuroscience as it relates to creative insights, we hope to bring into clear focus the key enabling factors that are likely to have a hand in computing ideational combinations in the brain.

A Randomized Trial of Comparing the Efficacy of Two Neurofeedback Protocols for Treatment of Clinical and Cognitive Symptoms of ADHD: Theta Suppression/Beta Enhancement and Theta Suppression/Alpha Enhancement.

Introduction. Neurofeedback (NF) is an adjuvant or alternative therapy for children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). This study intended to compare the efficacy of two different NF protocols on clinical and cognitive symptoms of ADHD. Materials and Methods. In this clinical trial, sixty children with ADHD aged 7 to 10 years old were randomly grouped to receive two different NF treatments (theta suppression/beta enhancement protocol and theta suppression/alpha enhancement protocol). Clinical and cognitive assessments were conducted prior to and following the treatment and also after an eight-week follow-up. Results. Both protocols alleviated the symptoms of ADHD in general (p < 0.001), hyperactivity (p < 0.001), inattention (p < 0.001), and omission errors (p < 0.001); however, they did not affect the oppositional and impulsive scales nor commission errors. These effects were maintained after an eight-week intervention-free period. The only significant difference between the two NF protocols was that high-frequency alpha enhancement protocol performed better in suppressing omission errors (p < 0.001). Conclusion. The two NF protocols with theta suppression/beta enhancement and theta suppression/alpha enhancement have considerable and comparable effect on clinical symptoms of ADHD. Alpha enhancement protocol was more effective in suppressing omission errors.

DETAILED ABUNDANCE ANALYSIS OF A METAL-POOR GIANT IN THE GALACTIC CENTER

ABSTRACT We report the first results from our program to examine the metallicity distribution of the Milky Way nuclear star cluster connected to Sgr A*, with the goal of inferring the star formation and enrichment history of this system, as well as its connection and relationship with the central 100 pc of the bulge/bar system. We present the first high-resolution (R ∼ 24,000), detailed abundance analysis of a K = 10.2 metal-poor, alpha-enhanced red giant projected at 1.5 pc from the Galactic center, using NIRSPEC on Keck II. A careful analysis of the dynamics and color of the star locates it at about pc line-of-sight distance in front of the nuclear cluster. It probably belongs to one of the nuclear components (cluster or disk), not to the bar/bulge or classical disk. A detailed spectroscopic synthesis, using a new line list in the K band, finds [Fe/H] ∼ −1.0 and [α/Fe] ∼ +0.4, consistent with stars of similar metallicity in the bulge. As known giants with comparable [Fe/H] and alpha enhancement are old, we conclude that this star is most likely to be a representative of the ∼10 Gyr old population. This is also the most metal-poor-confirmed red giant yet discovered in the vicinity of the nuclear cluster of the Galactic center. We consider recent reports in the literature of a surprisingly large number of metal-poor giants in the Galactic center, but the reported gravity of for these stars calls into question their reported metallicities.

Neural alpha oscillations index the balance between self-other integration and segregation in real-time joint action

Shared knowledge and interpersonal coordination are prerequisites for most forms of social behavior. Influential approaches to joint action have conceptualized these capacities in relation to the separate constructs of co-representation (knowledge) and self-other entrainment (coordination). Here we investigated how brain mechanisms involved in co-representation and entrainment interact to support joint action. To do so, we used a musical joint action paradigm to show that the neural mechanisms underlying co-representation and self-other entrainment are linked via a process – indexed by EEG alpha oscillations – regulating the balance between self-other integration and segregation in real time. Pairs of pianists performed short musical items while action familiarity and interpersonal (behavioral) synchronization accuracy were manipulated in a factorial design. Action familiarity referred to whether or not pianists had rehearsed the musical material performed by the other beforehand. Interpersonal synchronization was manipulated via congruent or incongruent tempo change instructions that biased performance timing towards the impending, new tempo. It was observed that, when pianists were familiar with each other's parts, millisecond variations in interpersonal synchronized behavior were associated with a modulation of alpha power over right centro-parietal scalp regions. Specifically, high behavioral entrainment was associated with self-other integration, as indexed by alpha suppression. Conversely, low behavioral entrainment encouraged reliance on internal knowledge and thus led to self-other segregation, indexed by alpha enhancement. These findings suggest that alpha oscillations index the processing of information about self and other depending on the compatibility of internal knowledge and external (environmental) events at finely resolved timescales.

Chemical abundances of giant stars in NGC 5053 and NGC 5634, two globular clusters associated with the Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy?

The tidal disruption of the Sagittarius dwarf Spheroidal galaxy (Sgr dSph) is producing the most prominent substructure in the Milky Way (MW) halo, the Sagittarius Stream. Aside from field stars, the Sgr dSph is suspected to have lost a number of globular clusters (GC). Many Galactic GC are suspected to have originated in the Sgr dSph. While for some candidates an origin in the Sgr dSph has been confirmed due to chemical similarities, others exist whose chemical composition has never been investigated. NGC 5053 and NGC 5634 are two among these scarcely studied Sgr dSph candidate-member clusters. To characterize their composition we analyzed one giant star in NGC 5053, and two in NGC 5634. We analize high-resolution and signal-to-noise spectra by means of the MyGIsFOS code, determining atmospheric parameters and abundances for up to 21 species between O and Eu. The abundances are compared with those of MW halo field stars, of "unassociated" MW halo globulars, and of the metal poor Sgr dSph main body population. We derive a metallicity of [FeII/H]=-2.26+-0.10 for NGC 5053, and of [FeI/H]=-1.99+-0.075 and -1.97+-0.076 for the two stars in NGC 5634. This makes NGC 5053 one of the most metal poor globular clusters in the MW. Both clusters display an alpha enhancement similar to the one of the halo at comparable metallicity. The two stars in NGC 5634 clearly display the Na-O anticorrelation widespread among MW globulars. Most other abundances are in good agreement with standard MW halo trends. The chemistry of the Sgr dSph main body populations is similar to the one of the halo at low metallicity. It is thus difficult to discriminate between an origin of NGC 5053 and NGC 5634 in the Sgr dSph, and one in the MW. However, the abundances of these clusters do appear closer to that of Sgr dSph than of the halo, favoring an origin in the Sgr dSph system.

The ATLAS3D Project – XXX. Star formation histories and stellar population scaling relations of early-type galaxies

We present the stellar population content of early-type galaxies from the Atlas3D survey. Using spectra integrated within apertures covering up to one effective radius, we apply two methods: one based on measuring line-strength indices and applying single stellar population (SSP) models to derive SSP-equivalent values of stellar age, metallicity, and alpha enhancement; and one based on spectral fitting to derive non-parametric star-formation histories, mass-weighted average values of age, metallicity, and half-mass formation timescales. Using homogeneously derived effective radii and dynamically-determined galaxy masses, we present the distribution of stellar population parameters on the Mass Plane (M_JAM, Sigma_e, R_maj), showing that at fixed mass, compact early-type galaxies are on average older, more metal-rich, and more alpha-enhanced than their larger counterparts. From non-parametric star-formation histories, we find that the duration of star formation is systematically more extended in lower mass objects. Assuming that our sample represents most of the stellar content of today's local Universe, approximately 50% of all stars formed within the first 2 Gyr following the big bang. Most of these stars reside today in the most massive galaxies (>10^10.5 M_sun), which themselves formed 90% of their stars by z~2. The lower-mass objects, in contrast, have formed barely half their stars in this time interval. Stellar population properties are independent of environment over two orders of magnitude in local density, varying only with galaxy mass. In the highest-density regions of our volume (dominated by the Virgo cluster), galaxies are older, alpha-enhanced and have shorter star-formation histories with respect to lower density regions.

The effects of a single session of upper alpha neurofeedback for cognitive enhancement: a sham-controlled study.

The minimization of the non-specific factors of neurofeedback (NF) is an important aspect to further advance in the understanding of the effects of these types of procedures. This paper investigates the NF effects of a single session (25min) of individual upper alpha enhancement following a sham-controlled experimental design (19 healthy participants). We measured immediate effects after the training and 1-day lasting EEG effects (eyes closed resting state and task-related activity), as well as the event-locked EEG effects during the execution of a mental rotation task. These metrics were computed in trained (upper alpha) and non-trained EEG parameters (lower alpha and lower beta). Several cognitive functions were assessed such as working memory and mental rotation abilities. The NF group showed increased upper alpha power after training in task-related activity (not significantly sustained 1day after) and higher pre-stimulus power during the mental rotation task. Both groups improved cognitive performance, with a more prominent improvement for the NF group, however a single session seems to be insufficient to yield significant differences between groups. A higher number of training sessions seems necessary to achieve long-lasting effects on the electrophysiology and to enhance the behavioral effects.

Beclin-1-independent autophagy positively regulates internal ribosomal entry site-dependent translation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α under nutrient deprivation.

Hypoxia has been shown to induce hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1α) expression to support many cellular changes required for tumor growth and metastasis. In addition to hypoxia, nutrient deprivation is another stress condition widely existing in solid tumors due to the poor blood supply. Our data showed that nutrient deprivation induces a significant HIF-1α protein expression and potentiates the HIF-1α responses of hypoxia and CoCl2. This effect is not because of enhancement of HIF-1α stability or transcription. Rather we found it is through the cap-independent but internal ribosome entry site (IRES)-dependent translation. Notably inhibition of autophagy by si-ATG5, 3-methyladenine and chloroquine, but not si-Beclin-1, significantly reverses nutrient deprivation-induced HIF-1α responses. Furthermore, it is interesting to note the contribution of IRES activation for hypoxia-induced HIF-1α expression, however, different from nutrient starvation, si-Beclin 1 but not si-ATG5 can inhibit hypoxia-induced HIF-1α IRES activation and protein expression. Taken together, we for the first time highlight a link from alternative autophagy to cap-independent protein translation of HIF-1α under two unique stress conditions. We demonstrate Beclin 1-independent autophagy is involved to positively regulate nutrient deprivation induced-HIF-1α IRES activity and protein expression, while ATG5-independent autophagy is involved in the HIF-1 IRES activation caused by hypoxia.

ATLAS3D Stellar Population Gradients

AbstractWe present stellar population gradients of early-type galaxies from the ATLAS3D survey: a complete, volume-limited multi-wavelength survey of 260 early-type galaxies in the local 42 Mpc volume. Using emission-corrected spectra integrated within elliptical annuli we measure line-strength indices and apply single stellar population (SSP) models to derive SSP-equivalent values of stellar age, metallicity, and alpha enhancement as function of radius. For all galaxies we derive basic linear stellar population gradients versus radius logR/Re). These gradients are examined on their own and versus three mass-sensitive parameters: K-band luminosity MK, velocity dispersion within one effective radius log σe, and our dynamical mass MJAM. We find a correlation between positive age gradients (younger centre) and steeper negative metallicity gradients with a Spearman rank correlation coefficient of -0.46 and a significance of 7.65 × 10−15. Furthermore, we find a robustly estimated mean metallicity gradient of Δ[Z/H] = -0.37 ± 0.01 for the sample with a significant trend for more massive galaxies to have shallower profiles. While there is no clear distinction between fast and slow rotators or signs of environmental influence, we do detect a significantly larger range of [Z/H]-gradients towards low mass galaxies.

Structural basis of Ets1 activation by Runx1

Runx1 is required for definitive hematopoiesis and is well-known for its frequent chromosomal translocations and point mutations in leukemia. Runx1 regulates a variety of genes via Ets1 activation on an Ets1•Runx1 composite DNA sequence. The structural basis of such regulation remains unresolved. To address this problem, we determined the crystal structure of the ternary complex containing Runx11-242 and Ets1296-441 bound to T cell receptor alpha (TCRα) enhancer DNA. In the crystal, an Ets1-interacting domain of Runx1 is bound to the Ets1 DNA-binding domain and displaced an entire autoinhibitory module of Ets1, revealing a novel mechanism of Ets1 activation. The DNA binding and transcriptional studies with a variety of structure-guided Runx1 mutants confirmed a critical role of direct Ets1•Runx1 interaction in Ets1 activation. More importantly, the discovered mechanism provides a plausible explanation for how the Ets1•Runx1 interaction effectively activates not only a wild-type Ets1, but also a highly inhibited phosphorylated form of Ets1.

AN EMPIRICAL CONNECTION BETWEEN THE ULTRAVIOLET COLOR OF EARLY-TYPE GALAXIES AND THE STELLAR INITIAL MASS FUNCTION

Using new UV magnitudes for a sample of early-type galaxies, ETGs, with published stellar mass-to-light ratios, Upsilon_*, we find a correlation between UV color and Upsilon_* that is tighter than those previously identified between Upsilon_* and either the central stellar velocity dispersion, metallicity, or alpha enhancement. The sense of the correlation is that galaxies with larger Upsilon_* are bluer in the UV. We conjecture that differences in the lower mass end of the stellar initial mass function, IMF, are related to the nature of the extreme horizontal branch populations that are generally responsible for the UV flux in ETGs. If so, then UV color can be used to identify ETGs with particular IMF properties and to estimate Upsilon_*.

Hyperoxia inhibits glucose-induced insulin secretion and mitochondrial metabolism in rat pancreatic islets

Isolated pancreatic islets containing the insulin-producing beta cells are devoid of circulation. They may therefore experience hypoxia with possible negative effects on beta cell function and survival. We investigated (1) whether hyperoxia in vitro would be beneficial by counteracting putative effects of lost circulation and, further, (2) whether previous hyperoxia would attenuate the impact of subsequently induced severe hypoxia. Islets from Sprague–Dawley rats were exposed to 95% O2 for 18h. This hyperoxic exposure diminished glucose-induced insulin secretion by 47% and inhibited oxygen consumption by 39–41%. Mitochondrial complexes I–III were decreased by 29–37%. Negative effects on insulin secretion and complexes III and IV waned after a 22h period of normoxia following hyperoxia whereas complexes I and II were still diminished, ROS production was increased and rates of apoptosis tended to be increased (P=0.07). The effects of previous hyperoxia on susceptibility to damage by subsequent hypoxia were tested after 5.5h of 0.8% O2. Previous hyperoxia did not affect hypoxia-induced enhancement of HIF-1 alpha but modestly and significantly attenuated hypoxia-induced decreases in insulin contents. We conclude that hyperoxia exerts largely negative effects on beta cells, effects which are functional and possibly also toxic. A paradoxical positive finding (attenuation of hypoxia-induced effects) could be secondary to a protective effect of the hyperoxia-induced reduction of oxidative metabolism.

Peripheral Visual Performance Enhancement by Neurofeedback Training

Peripheral visual performance is an important ability for everyone, and a positive inter-individual correlation is found between the peripheral visual performance and the alpha amplitude during the performance test. This study investigated the effect of alpha neurofeedback training on the peripheral visual performance. A neurofeedback group of 13 subjects finished 20 sessions of alpha enhancement feedback within 20 days. The peripheral visual performance was assessed by a new dynamic peripheral visual test on the first and last training day. The results revealed that the neurofeedback group showed significant enhancement of the peripheral visual performance as well as the relative alpha amplitude during the peripheral visual test. It was not the case in the non-neurofeedback control group, which performed the tests within the same time frame as the neurofeedback group but without any training sessions. These findings suggest that alpha neurofeedback training was effective in improving peripheral visual performance. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to show evidence for performance improvement in peripheral vision via alpha neurofeedback training.

Left parietal alpha enhancement during working memory-intensive sentence processing

Both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related brain potential (ERP) studies have shown that verbal working memory plays an important role during sentence processing. There is growing evidence from outside of sentence processing that human alpha oscillations (7–13 Hz) play a critical role in working memory. This study aims to link this to the sentence processing domain. Time-frequency analyses and source localization were performed on electroencephalography (EEG) data that were recorded during the processing of auditorily presented sentences involving either a short or a long distance between an argument (subject or object) and the respective sentence-final verb. We reasoned that oscillatory activity in the alpha band should increase during sentences with longer argument-verb distances, since decreased temporal proximity should result in increased memory demands. When verbal working memory-intensive long-dependency sentences were compared to short-dependency sentences, a sustained oscillatory enhancement at 10 Hz was found during storage prior to the sentence-final verb, turning into a transient power increase in the beta band (13–20 Hz) at the sentence-final verb. The sources of the alpha oscillations were localized to bilaterally occipital and left parietal cortices. Only the source activity in the left parietal cortex was negatively correlated with verbal working memory abilities. These findings indicate that the parsimonious role of alpha oscillations in domain-general working memory can be extended to language, that is, sentence processing. We suggest that the function of left parietal cortex underlying verbal working memory storage during sentence processing is to inhibit the premature release of verbal information that will subsequently be integrated.

Towards the big picture of the Milky Way bulge

Evidence has been growing in the last few years that the Bulge is very complex, with maybe two or more components partially overlapping in space, kinematics and metallicity. An extensive mapping of these properties is necessary to disentangle them. I present our results based on α-elements abundances for a total of 650 RGB stars in 4 fields along the major and minor axis of the Bulge. Results point towards a spatial homogeneity of α-element enhancement in the metal-poor regime and a population of alpha-poor metal-rich stars which disappears at high latitudes (b = −12). Bulge metal-poor alpha enhancement is also indistinguishable from the one of the thick disk. Further constrains on Bulge populations are provided by the Vista Variables in the Via Lactea survey (VVV) from which I present our recent results in extinction, structure and photometric metallicities.

Neural oscillations associated with item and temporal order maintenance in working memory.

The ability to retain information in working memory (WM) requires not only the active maintenance of information about specific items, but also the temporal order in which the items appeared. Although many studies have investigated the neural mechanisms of item maintenance, little is known about the neural mechanisms of temporal order maintenance in WM. Here, we used electroencephalography (EEG) to compare neural oscillations during WM tasks that required maintenance of item or temporal order information. Behavioral results revealed that accuracy and reaction times were comparable between the two conditions, suggesting that task difficulty was matched between the item and temporal order WM tasks. EEG analyses indicated that theta (5-7 Hz) oscillations over prefrontal sites were increased during temporal order maintenance, whereas alpha oscillations (9-12 Hz) over posterior parietal and lateral occipital sites were increased during item maintenance. The frontal theta enhancement was primarily evident in high performers on the order WM task, whereas the posterior alpha enhancement was primarily evident in high performers on the item WM task. These results support the idea that frontal theta and posterior alpha oscillations are differentially related to maintenance of item and temporal order information.

EEG and coherence responses to monetary gain and loss during a memory task: Effects of attentional impulsivity and learning ability

This study investigated electrophysiological (EEG) measures as a function of individual differences in facets of impulsivity, learning ability, and learning practice during an instrumental learning task. Data analysis (48 women participants) was based on EEG activity within 1-s epoch following visual feedback signals of monetary gain and loss. The EEG spectral power and coherence measures were derived from 30 scalp sites for delta (0.5–3.5 Hz), theta (3.5–7 Hz), lower alpha (7–9.5 Hz), upper alpha (10–12.5 Hz), beta (15–20 Hz), and gammabands (36–44 Hz). High attentional, impulsive individuals displayed a greater error rate than low attentional impulsives. Monetary loss produced greater spectral power than monetary gain for the theta band over frontal scalp sites, while a greater upper alpha power was found for monetary gain across centroparieto-occipital sites. Learning taskpracticewasassociatedwith increased lower alphapowerover centro-parietal sites, increasedupper alphapower over parietal sites, and reduced gamma power over left temporal sites. Good learners as compared to bad learners had (1) enhanced theta on centro-parietal sites and reducedon frontal sites, (2) enhancedbetapower on temporal sites and reduced on parieto-occipital sites, (3) enhanced gamma power on fronto-temporal sites for both monetary loss and gain signals. Good learner/low attentional impulsivity participants, for both monetary loss and gain signals, had a greater gamma power on temporal sites as compared to bad learner/high and low attentional impulsivity groups. The enhanced error rate and the reduced gamma power found in high attentional impulsive subjects are consistent with a number of previous studies indicating frontal lobe dysfunction in association with impulsive behavior and may indicate that impulsive individuals make more effort in activating temporal regions for memory updating. Across theta, upper alpha and gamma frequencybands, good learners had greater fronto-parietal coherences than bad learners, andmonetary loss displayed greater coherences than monetary gain. This indicates a leading role of a fronto-parietal network in outcome processing for memory consolidation and learning. Finally, good learner/high attentional impulsivity subjects, as compared to the other groups, had the highest enhancement of theta, upper alpha, and gamma coherences at far distant cortical regions for monetary loss. This finding outlines the importance of punishment signals in the learning process and suggests that individual differences in attentional impulsivity play an important role in learning ability.