Allocation Of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Research Articles

Economic Growth, CO2 Emissions Quota and Optimal Allocation under Uncertainty

This study attempts to link greenhouse gas emissions and economic development, and under the premise of considering economic development, proposes an optimal quota of greenhouse gas emissions. Based on the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis, the logarithmic value of greenhouse gas emissions is an inverted U-shaped function of the logarithmic value of GDP per capita. The empirical results showed that most countries in the world support the Kuznets curve hypothesis. Moreover, using data collected from Our World in Data, the optimal allocation of a greenhouse gas emissions quota can be found by minimizing the uncertainty risk subject to a prespecified global economic growth rate. For government policymakers, they may apply the framework in this study to determine an optimal allocation of greenhouse gas emissions for each sector that will ensure the intended level of domestic economic growth.

Determining the Unit Values of the Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions for the Production of Biofuels in the Life Cycle

Thanks to the allocation methods, i.e., the division of the total GHG emissions between each of the products generated in the production of biofuels, it is possible to reduce the emissions of these gases by up to 35% in relation to the production and combustion of fuels derived from crude oil. As part of this study, the biodiesel production process was analyzed in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. On the basis of the obtained results, the key factors influencing the emissions level of the biodiesel production process were identified. In order to assess the sensitivity of the results of the adopted allocation method, this study included calculations of GHG emissions with an allocation method based on mass, energy, and financial shares. The article reviews recent advances that have the potential to enable a sustainable energy transition, a green economy, and carbon neutrality in the biofuels sector. The paper shows that the technology used for the production of biodiesel is of great importance for sustainable development. The possibility of using renewable raw materials for the production of fuels leads to a reduction in the consumption of fossil fuels and lower emission of pollutants. It showed that during the combustion of biodiesel, the percentages of released gas components, with the exception of nitrogen oxides, which increased by 13%, were significantly lower: CO2—78%, CO—43%, SO2—100%, PM10—32%, and volatile hydrocarbons—63%. Moreover, it was found that biodiesel undergoes five times faster biodegradation in the environment than diesel oil.

Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Using the Fairness Principle: A Multi-Country Analysis

This study presents an analysis of the allocation of greenhouse gas emissions based on a comparison of criteria for 66 countries and fairness-based indicators. The academic literature contains very few broad multi-country studies. The large sample of countries included in our analysis has allowed us to make a more comprehensive, holistic comparison than other studies with similar characteristics. The United States and China must make the greatest effort to fight climate change worldwide, but all countries have a responsibility, including some that are not usually analyzed in this type of research.

Aggregation and Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Oil and Gas Production: Implications for Life-Cycle Greenhouse Gas Burdens

Methods used for emission aggregation and allocation have significant impacts on life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emission estimates for oil and gas products; however, because of limited data availability for upstream and mid-stream oil and gas operations, the influence of the allocation technique has not been extensively explored in previous studies. GHG emissions associated with oil and gas production and processing in the Eagle Ford Shale (with 34 gas processing plants and classified into 12 production regions) are estimated, using data from 2013, at three different scales of spatial aggregation (production region, gas plant and basin levels), to characterize the spatial variabilities in GHG emissions within the Eagle Ford Shale. GHG emissions per energy content of oil and gas products vary from 3.4 to 14 g CO2e/MJ among the regions within the Eagle Ford Shale, and from 3.5 to 23 g CO2e/MJ when assigned at the individual gas processing plant level, with a basin average of 6.8 g CO2e/MJ. GHG emissions ar...

Further insights into the allocation of greenhouse gas emissions to shipments in road freight transportation: The pollution routing game

Abstract At present, there is no globally accepted standard for the allocation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to shipments in road freight transportation. The only official international standard for emission calculation of transport operations is the European Norm EN-16258. However, even this norm still allows choosing from several alternative emission allocation schemes. This research aims to harmonize the process of GHG declarations for supply chains by identifying among all allocation units specified by EN-16258 the one that describes a shipment's contribution to GHG emissions best. For this purpose, concepts of the cooperative game theory are used. First, we develop three transport scenarios that allow studying a shipment's effect on GHG: a vehicle routing problem, a network flow model, and a mixed scenario. Our approach extends previous research projects because we take into account that shipment characteristics in terms of origin, destination, weight, and volume consume transport capacities to different degrees, impact the routing of the commercial vehicles and, thus, determine GHG. Second, we present the results of a computational study that bases on the introduced transport scenarios and that compares the allocation vectors resulting from the EN-16258 allocation rules with the Shapley value, which serves as a benchmark for a shipment's contribution to GHG. Furthermore, we show how often the EN-16258 allocation principles are in line with a set of game theoretical fairness criteria. The results indicate that the allocation unit ‘distance’ is the closest to the game theory benchmark and most often in line with game theoretical fairness criteria.

Further Insights into the Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions to Shipments in Road Freight Transportation: The Pollution Routing Game

At present, there is no globally accepted standard for the allocation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to shipments in road freight transportation. The only official international standard for emission calculation of transport operations is the European Norm EN-16258. However, even this norm still allows choosing from several alternative emission allocation schemes. This research aims to harmonize the process of GHG declarations for supply chains by identifying among all allocation units specified by EN-16258 the one that describes a shipment's contribution to GHG emissions best. For this purpose, concepts of the cooperative game theory are used. First, we develop three transport scenarios that allow studying a shipment's effect on GHG: a vehicle routing problem, a network flow model, and a mixed scenario. Our approach extends previous research projects because we take into account that shipment characteristics in terms of origin, destination, weight, and volume consume transport capacities to different degrees, impact the routing of the commercial vehicles and, thus, determine GHG. Second, we present the results of a computational study that bases on the introduced transport scenarios and that compares the allocation vectors resulting from the EN-16258 allocation rules with the Shapley value, which serves as a benchmark for a shipment's contribution to GHG. Furthermore, we show how often the EN-16258 allocation principles are in line with a set of game theoretical fairness criteria. The results indicate that the allocation unit ‘distance’ is the closest to the game theory benchmark and most often in line with game theoretical fairness criteria.

Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Containers in Multimodal Transshipment Terminals using Simulation

Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Containers in Multimodal Transshipment Terminals using Simulation

Die Bundesländer in der nationalen Energie- und Klimapolitik: Räumliche Verteilungswirkungen und föderale Politikgestaltung der Energiewende

Until today, the academic and political debates on the German energy transition have primarily focused on policy activities and processes at either the national or local level. However, they have largely ignored how the Länder shape the federal decision-making on the allocation of greenhouse gas emissions according to their place-based economic interests. The starting point of this paper is the empirical evidence that effective national climate mitigation policies can go along with considerable and spatially unevenly distributed redistributive effects for regional energy industries, energy consumption sectors and thus public budgets of the Länder. Since the costs and benefits of climate mitigation policies are distributed unevenly, the Länder pursue place-based economic and political interests that shape their climate mitigation programs and their positions in federal decision-making. Based on an analysis of the regional economic interests and of the climate mitigation programs of the Länder, the paper uses the cases of the renewable energy policies and the European emission trading system to demonstrate how (re-)distributional conflicts in climate mitigation policies have been reconciled. The case studies show that redistributive policies could be implemented through concessions to single Länder. They also show that through distributive mechanisms, the externalization of costs to the users played a major role, and that the EU could partially dissolve blockades in decision-making. Contrary to findings in the academic debate on German federalism, federal climate mitigation policies have partially stimulated mechanisms for economic and innovation competition between the Länder. However, the findings also demonstrate that the concessions to regional economic interests have reduced the cost-efficiency and effectiveness of the German energy and climate mitigation policies.

Integration of ecosystem services into the carbon footprint of milk of South German dairy farms

Allocation of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) is challenging especially when multi-functionality of dairy farms, which do not only produce milk but also meat is considered. Moreover, some farms fulfill a wide range of additional services for society such as management of renewable natural resources as well as preservation of biodiversity and cultural landscapes. Due to the increasing degradation of ecosystems many industrialized as well as developing countries designed payment systems for environmental services.This study examines different allocation methods of GHG for a comparatively large convenience sample of 113 dairy farms located in grassland-based areas of southern Germany. Results are carbon footprints of 1.99 kg CO2eq/kg of fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM) on average if “no allocation” for coupled products is performed. “Physical allocation” results in 1.53 kg CO2eq/kg FPCM and “conventional economic allocation” in 1.66 kg CO2eq/kg FPCM on average if emissions are apportioned between milk and meat. Economic allocation which includes ecosystem services for society based on the farm net income as a new aspect in this study results in a carbon footprint of 1.5 kg CO2eq/kg FPCM on average. System expansion that puts greater emphasis on coupled beef production accounts for a carbon footprint of 0.68 kg CO2eq/kg FPCM on average.Intense milk production systems with higher milk yields show better results based on “no allocation”, “physical allocation” and “conventional economic allocation”. By contrast, economic allocation, which takes into account ecosystem services favors extensive systems, especially in less favored areas. This shows that carbon footprints of dairy farms should not be examined one-dimensionally based on the amount of milk and meat that is produced on the farm. Rather, a broader perspective is necessary that takes into account the multi-functionality of dairy farms especially in countries where a wide range of ecosystem services is provided.

Concepts and Methodologies for Measuring the Sustainability of Cities

In recent decades, better data and methods have become available for understanding the complex functioning of cities and their impacts on sustainability. This review synthesizes the recent developments in concepts and methods being used to measure the impacts of cities on environmental sustainability. It differentiates between a dominant trend in research literature that concentrates on the accounting and allocation of greenhouse gas emissions and energy use to cities and a reemergence of studies that focus on the direct and indirect material and resource flows in cities. The methodological approaches reviewed may consider cities as either producers or consumers, and all recognize that urban environmental impacts can be local, regional, or global. As well as giving an overview of the methodological debates, we examine the implications of the different approaches for policy and the challenges these approaches face in their application in the field.

Allocating greenhouse gas emissions in the German federal system: Regional interests and federal climate governance

The academic debate on climate policies often portrays Germany as one of the most successful cases. Despite its federal system of joint decision-making, most studies of German climate policy focus primarily upon activities at the national level while disregarding the heterogeneous economic interests and veto options of the Länder. Using the cases on renewable energy policy and emission trading, we analyze the subnational interests and institutional mechanisms that shape the intergovernmental negotiations and policy outcomes within the federated system. The cases confirm assumptions made by general research on German federalism, according to which strategies for the externalization and compensation of costs are of particular importance for redistributive policies, and the EU plays a major role in dissolving potential barriers to the process of federal policy formation. Contrary to the reservations often expressed, we demonstrate that climate policies have led to an increased economic and political competition between the Länder and have supported effective solutions. However, recent shortfalls in the effectiveness of emission trading and in the cost-efficiency of renewable energy policies indicate that redistributive conflicts in the allocation of greenhouse gas emissions have to be addressed more systematically within the German (and the European) system(s) of joint decision-making.

A case study of the carbon footprint of milk from high-performing confinement and grass-based dairy farms

Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is the preferred methodology to assess carbon footprint per unit of milk. The objective of this case study was to apply an LCA method to compare carbon footprints of high-performance confinement and grass-based dairy farms. Physical performance data from research herds were used to quantify carbon footprints of a high-performance Irish grass-based dairy system and a top-performing United Kingdom (UK) confinement dairy system. For the US confinement dairy system, data from the top 5% of herds of a national database were used. Life-cycle assessment was applied using the same dairy farm greenhouse gas (GHG) model for all dairy systems. The model estimated all on- and off-farm GHG sources associated with dairy production until milk is sold from the farm in kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2-eq) and allocated emissions between milk and meat. The carbon footprint of milk was calculated by expressing GHG emissions attributed to milk per tonne of energy-corrected milk (ECM). The comparison showed that when GHG emissions were only attributed to milk, the carbon footprint of milk from the Irish grass-based system (837kg of CO2-eq/t of ECM) was 5% lower than the UK confinement system (884kg of CO2-eq/t of ECM) and 7% lower than the US confinement system (898kg of CO2-eq/t of ECM). However, without grassland carbon sequestration, the grass-based and confinement dairy systems had similar carbon footprints per tonne of ECM. Emission algorithms and allocation of GHG emissions between milk and meat also affected the relative difference and order of dairy system carbon footprints. For instance, depending on the method chosen to allocate emissions between milk and meat, the relative difference between the carbon footprints of grass-based and confinement dairy systems varied by 3 to 22%. This indicates that further harmonization of several aspects of the LCA methodology is required to compare carbon footprints of contrasting dairy systems. In comparison to recent reports that assess the carbon footprint of milk from average Irish, UK, and US dairy systems, this case study indicates that top-performing herds of the respective nations have carbon footprints 27 to 32% lower than average dairy systems. Although differences between studies are partly explained by methodological inconsistency, the comparison suggests that potential exists to reduce the carbon footprint of milk in each of the nations by implementing practices that improve productivity.

Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Supply Chains

Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Supply Chains

Allocation of greenhouse gas emissions to products and joint-venture partners

The oil and gas industry in Australia consists of a range of complicated joint venture (JV) and processing arrangements. With a future price on carbon in the Clean Energy Future Legislation Package, parties are keen to understand their carbon liabilities where they have interests (both operated and non-operated), and the extent to which a price on carbon can be passed on to customers. Many oil and gas companies have been reporting greenhouse gas emissions from their facilities to the Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency since 2009 using the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting System framework. Subsequently, numerous companies from the sector have developed greenhouse gas reporting systems linking into existing oil and gas production allocation systems. These companies are now turning their attention to using this information to allocate greenhouse gas emissions from their facilities to specific oil and gas sales products, as well as to JV partners. This extended abstract, which includes a case study, explores these developments and discusses the key considerations when allocating greenhouse gas emissions to specific products and JV partners. Also explored are the following questions: What assumptions need to be made at the facility level for emissions associated with extracting, processing and refining specific products ready for sale? How robust and defensible are these assumptions? How do you build these assumptions into a system or model that allocates emissions to different products? What processes do you then put in place to allocate emissions to specific JV partners, and what information will be reported to them and what quality and assurance processes need to be in place to provide comfort to your JV partners of the robustness of the numbers? How will the costs associated with carbon be allocated?

Study on the Concept of Per Capita Cumulative Emissions and Allocation Options

Global long-term emission reduction targets need well defined options for equitable allocation of greenhouse gas emissions. Scholars from developing countries put forward the concept of equitable per capita cumulative emission rights. There are four possible operational definitions resulting from this concept. These potential options for allocation of emission rights are expressed with mathematical equations. Through simple simulation, this paper reveals the advantages, disadvantages and characteristics of each option. CitationYu, S., X. Gao, C. Ma, et al., 2011: Study on the concept of per capita cumulative emissions and allocation options. Adv. Clim. Change Res., 2(2), doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1248.2011.00079.

Allocation of GHG emissions in combined heat and power systems: a new proposal for considering inefficiencies of the system

The paper industry is responsible for a considerable amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions mainly due to its intensive energy requirements. The production of heat and power streams in a cogeneration system, i.e., a combined heat and power (CHP) plant, releases considerable amounts of GHG emissions into the atmosphere. Such emissions are already subjected to legislation globally. The amount of GHG emissions is usually calculated from the product of the total amount of energy activity multiplied by an emission factor. However, each energy output stream should get a share of emissions responsibility. This fact could assist in assigning weights to the emissions generated for power and thermal purposes in a combined heat and power plant. However, developing a suitable method of allocating emissions in a cogeneration system is still a concern and a subject research for scientists, companies and policy makers. This paper exposes and evaluates different published allocation methods and applies them to a real case of a combined heat and power plant integrated in a paper mill and proposes a new allocation method.

Cities' contribution to global warming: notes on the allocation of greenhouse gas emissions

This paper suggests that the contribution of cities to global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions is often overstated. Many sources suggest that cities are responsible for 75—80 per cent of all such emissions. But as statistics drawn from the IPCC's Fourth Assessment show, this considerably understates the contributions from agriculture and deforestation and from heavy industries, fossil-fuelled power stations and high-consumption households that are not located in cities. It is likely that, worldwide, less than half of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are generated within city boundaries. However, if greenhouse gas emissions from power stations and industries are assigned to the location of the person or institution who consumes them (rather than where they are produced), cities would account for a higher proportion of total emissions. But it would be misleading to attribute this to “cities” in general, since these emissions would be heavily concentrated in cities in high-income nations and they should be ascribed to the individuals and institutions whose consumption generates them, not to the places where they are located.

Cutting the “Gordian knot” in climate change policy

Ongoing conflict over the fair allocation of greenhouse gas emissions among nations is a significant impediment to progress in international climate change negotiations. This article considers the strengths and weaknesses of a crucial argument within the allocation debate asserting the atmospheric capacity to absorb greenhouse gases should be distributed on an equal per capita basis. While noting the argument's many appealing qualities, the paper argues that the per capita perspective also encompasses important practical and ethical limitations. Besides potentially encouraging population growth and discriminating against those with greater (but still legitimate) energy needs, early evidence suggests that the equal per capita idea may hinder progress in climate change talks by invoking a more absolutist and uncompromising rhetoric of rights. Alternative ideas of fairness, such as the distinction between subsistence and luxury emissions, or the Common Heritage of Mankind idea, offer a more flexible mix of egalitarian and other allocation principles that should be considered carefully, even by those sympathetic to the equal per capita perspective.

New estimation of air traffic emissions in France: trends and comparison with other transport modes

Based on detailed traffic data and technological data, air emissions from air traffic have been compiled according to a revised methodology which includes refined assumptions and takes into account various parameters such as the identification of aircraft engines, relevant taxiway duration by airport, etc. Both commercial and non-commercial traffic have been considered. The new methodology allows for better compliance with specifications regarding international accounting rules for air emission inventories especially those concerning the allocation of greenhouse gas emissions under national totals. Following the description of the methodology, weak points and areas of progress, results concerning air emissions in France since 1960 to the present are presented for domestic as well as for international traffic. The revised estimation shows contrasted results compared to the previous one (overestimation for NMVOC, CO and NOx (cruise), underestimation for NOx (LTOs) and relatively similar levels for SO2 and CO2). Results are also compared to those from other transportation modes and assessments and key indicators are proposed.

The Nucleolus of a Characteristic Function Game

Abstract : In RM 23, a proof was given that the nucleolus is continuous as a function of the characteristic function. This proof is not correct; the author, at least, does not know how to complete it. In the paper a correct proof for this fact is given. The proof is based on an alternative definition of the nucleolus, which is of some interest in its own right. (Author)