All-out Test Research Articles

A 3-min All-out Upper-body Ergometer Test For Competitive Swimmers.

We examined the application of a land-based swimming ergometer 3-min all-out test to determine physiological predictors of swimming performance. Fourteen young elite swimmers participated (males: n=6; females: n=8). The swimmers completed two 3-min upper-body all-out tests on a swimming ergometer. Additionally, the swimmers completed freestyle swim races ranging from 50 m to 1500 m. High test-retest reproducibility (r=0.98 and coefficient of variation values <7.5%) was evident for ergometer derived peak, mean and critical power. Very strong correlations (r>0.87, p<0.001) were obtained between the 200-, 400-, 800- and 1500-m swimming performances and derived critical speed. Moreover, correlations were found between peak force and peak power and 50-m performance, in addition to critical power and performance for all distances. The critical speed was the dominant predictor of 200- to 1500-m performances (r=0.84-0.99). In conclusion, the land-based 3-min all-out swimming ergometer test is reliable and valid in predicting swimming performance in competitive swimmers and evaluates important physiological components in swimmers independent of technical abilities.

Predicting Maximal Oxygen Uptake Using the 3-Minute All-Out Test in High-Intensity Functional Training Athletes.

Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and critical speed (CS) are key fatigue-related measurements that demonstrate a relationship to one another and are indicative of athletic endurance performance. This is especially true for those that participate in competitive fitness events. However, the accessibility to a metabolic analyzer to accurately measure VO2max is expensive and time intensive, whereas CS may be measured in the field using a 3 min all-out test (3MT). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between VO2max and CS in high-intensity functional training (HIFT) athletes. Twenty-five male and female (age: 27.6 ± 4.5 years; height: 174.5 ± 18.3 cm; weight: 77.4 ± 14.8 kg; body fat: 15.7 ± 6.5%) HIFT athletes performed a 3MT as well as a graded exercise test with 48 h between measurements. True VO2max was determined using a square-wave supramaximal verification phase and CS was measured as the average speed of the last 30 s of the 3MT. A statistically significant and positive correlation was observed between relative VO2max and CS values (r = 0.819, p < 0.001). Based on the significant correlation, a linear regression analysis was completed, including sex, in order to develop a VO2max prediction equation (VO2max (mL/kg/min) = 8.449(CS) + 4.387(F = 0, M = 1) + 14.683; standard error of the estimate = 3.34 mL/kg/min). Observed (47.71 ± 6.54 mL/kg/min) and predicted (47.71 ± 5.7 mL/kg/min) VO2max values were compared using a dependent t-test and no significant difference was displayed between the observed and predicted values (p = 1.000). The typical error, coefficient of variation, and intraclass correlation coefficient were 2.26 mL/kg/min, 4.90%, and 0.864, respectively. The positive and significant relationship between VO2max and CS suggests that the 3MT may be a practical alternative to predicting maximal oxygen uptake when time and access to a metabolic analyzer is limited.

Predicting the 2000-m Rowing Ergometer Performance from Anthropometric, Maximal Oxygen Uptake and 60-s Mean Power Variables in National Level Young Rowers.

Many studies reported various relationships between 2000-m rowing performance and anthropometric as well as metabolic variables, however, little is known about 60-s mean power in elite youth athletes. The aim of this study was to develop different regression models to predict 2000-m rowing indoor performance time (t2000) using anthropometric variables, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and mean power established during a 60-s all-out test (W60) in national elite youth rowers. Fifteen youth male Italian rowers (age: 15.7 ± 2.0 years; body height: 176.0 ± 8.0 cm; body mass: 71.2 ± 10.0 kg) performed an incremental maximal test, a 60-s all-out test and a 2000-m race simulation using a Concept2 rowing ergometer to assess VO2max, W60 and t2000, respectively. The relationships of all variables with t2000 were investigated through Pearson’s correlation. Multiple regression analyses were used to verify the best prediction model of 2000-m indoor rowing performance. The reliability of these models was expressed by R2 and the standard error of estimate. The results showed that t2000 was significantly correlated with all the examined variables, except for VO2max/body mass and age, and exhibited the significantly highest relationship with W60 (r = -0.943). The combination of anthropometric, VO2max and W60 variables was found to be the most reliable equation to predict t2000 (R2 = 0.94, SEE = 6.4). W60 measure should be considered when monitoring the rower’s capability to perform high-intensity phases, important during the race’s fast start and end. Not requiring expensive equipment and long duration, a 60-s all-out test could be considered a valuable tool for predicting 2000-m performance of elite youth rowers.

Creatine supplementation attenuates the rate of fatigue development during intermittent isometric exercise performed above end-test torque.

What is the central question of this study? Does creatine supplementation augment the total torque impulse accumulated above end-test torque (IET) during severe-intensity knee-extensor exercise by attenuating the rate of decrease in peak potentiated twitch torque (PT)? What is the main finding and its importance? Creatine augmented the IET and attenuated the rate of decrease in both voluntary activation and PT during severe-intensity exercise. The IET was related to the rate of decrease in PT. These findings reveal an important role for the rates of neuromuscular fatigue development as key determinants of exercise tolerance within the severe domain. This study investigated the effect of creatine supplementation on exercise tolerance, total torque impulse accumulated above end-test torque (total IET) and neuromuscular fatigue development of the knee extensors during severe-intensity intermittent isometric exercise. Sixteen men were randomly allocated into Creatine (n=8, 20gday-1 for 5days) or Placebo (n=8) groups and performed knee-extensor maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) testing, all-out testing to determine end-test torque (ET) and the finite torque impulse accumulated above end-test torque (IET'), and three submaximal tests at ET+10%: (i) time to task failure without supplementation (Baseline); (ii) time to task failure after creatine or placebo supplementation; and (iii) time matched to Baseline after creatine (Creatine-Isotime) or placebo (Placebo-Isotime) supplementation. Creatine supplementation significantly increased the time to task failure (Baseline=572±144sversusCreatine=833±221s) and total IET (Baseline=5761±1710 Nms versus Creatine=7878±1903Nms), but there were no significant differences within the Placebo group. The percentage change pre- to postexercise in MVC, voluntary activation, peak potentiated twitch torque and integrated EMG during MVC were not significantly different between Baseline and Creatine but were all significantly attenuated in Creatine-Isotime compared with Baseline. There were no significant differences in these variables within the placebo group. The total IET was significantly correlated with the rates of change in potentiated twitch torque peak (r=0.83-0.87) and rate of torque development (r=-0.83 to -0.87) for the submaximal tests to task failure. These findings reveal an important role for the rates of neuromuscular fatigue development as key determinants of exercise tolerance during severe-intensity intermittent isometric exercise.

Effects of Including Sprints in One Weekly Low-Intensity Training Session During the Transition Period of Elite Cyclists.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of including 30-s sprints in one weekly low-intensity training (LIT) session during a 3-week transition period in elite cyclists. Sixteen male elite cyclists (maximal oxygen uptake, VO2max: 72 ± 5 ml·kg−1·min−1) reduced their training load by ~60% for 3 weeks from the end of competitive season and performed only LIT or included 30-s sprints (SPR) in one weekly LIT-session. Performance and physiological capacities were evaluated during a prolonged (~2.5 h) test-session, including a strength test, a submaximal blood lactate profile test, an incremental test to exhaustion to determine VO2max, 1 h continuous cycling including four maximal 30-s sprints, and a 20-min all-out test. In addition, mental recovery was evaluated using the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ARQ). The only significant between-group change during the transition period was an 8 ± 11% larger improvement in 30-s sprint performance in SPR compared to control (CON; SPR: 4 ± 5%, CON: −4 ± 5%, p = 0.01). Although not different from CON, SPR maintained 20-min all-out performance (−1 ± 5%, p = 0.37) and fractional utilization of VO2max (1.9 ± 6.1%-points, p = 0.18) during the 20-min all-out test, whereas corresponding declines were observed in CON (−3 ± 5%, p = 0.04, and −2.5 ± 2.9%-points, p = 0.02, respectively). Power output at 4 mmol·L−1 blood lactate concentration decreased similarly in SPR (−4 ± 4%, p = 0.02) and CON (−5 ± 5%, p = 0.01), while VO2max, maximal aerobic power (Wmax), and total burnout score were unaffected in both groups. Including sprints in one weekly LIT-session in the transition period improves sprint performance and maintains 20-min all-out power and fractional utilization of VO2max without compromising mental recovery. Inclusion of sprints in LIT-sessions may therefore be a plausible, time-efficient strategy during short periods of reduced training.

Personalized Tests in Paralympic Athletes: Aerobic and Anaerobic Performance Profile of Elite Wheelchair Rugby Players.

In Paralympic sports, the goal of functional classifications is to minimize the impact of impairment on the outcome of the competition. The present cross-sectional study aimed to investigate aerobic and anaerobic personalized tests in Paralympic athletes and to correlate them with the classification of the international wheelchair rugby federation (IWRF). Sixteen elite players of the Italian wheelchair rugby team volunteered for the study. Aerobic (incremental test to exhaustion) and anaerobic (Wingate 30s all-out test, 5 and 10-meter sprint test, shuttle test, isometric test) sport-performance measurements were correlated singularly or grouped (Z scores) with the classification point. Moreover, a multivariate permutation-based ranking analysis investigated possible differences in the overall level of performance among the adjacent classified groups of players, considering the scores of each test. A statistically significant correlation between the performance parameters and the IWRF functional classification considering both aerobic and anaerobic personalized tests was detected (0.58 ≤ r ≤ 0.88; 0.0260 ≤ p ≤ 0.0001). The multivariate permutation-based ranking analysis showed differences only for the low-pointers versus mid-pointers (p = 0.0195) and high-pointers (p = 0.0075). Although single performance parameters correlated with athletes’ classification point, results of the multivariate permutation-based ranking analysis seem to suggest considering only the most significant anaerobic and sport-specific performance parameters among athletes. These should be combined with the physical assessment and the qualitative observation, which are already part of the classification process to improve its effectiveness.

Demarcating Exercise Intensity Domains in Freestyle Swimming: Is There an Alternative to Incremental Step Test and Beats Below HRmax Method?

Piatrikova, E, Sousa, AC, Willsmer, NJ, Gonzalez, JT, and Williams, S. Demarcating exercise intensity domains in freestyle swimming: is there an alternative to incremental step test and beats below HRmax method? J Strength Cond Res 34(9): 2575-2584, 2020-Critical power derived from the 3-minute all-out test (3MT) was recently used to estimate the exercise intensity boundaries in competitive cyclists. Considering that physiological testing is challenging in swimming, the purpose of this study was to examine whether critical speed (CS) derived from the 3MT could be used for the same purpose in swimming. The second aim was to assess the accuracy of the 50-40 and 30-20 beats below the maximal (BBM) heart rate method, currently used by swimming coaches to demarcate boundaries between moderate-heavy and heavy-severe exercise, respectively. Thirteen swimmers completed an incremental step test (IST) and 3MT in freestyle to establish speeds at: lactate threshold (LT), lactate turnpoint (LTP), maximum aerobic speed (Smax), and CS. Using linear regression through origin, speeds at LT, LTP, and Smax were predicted at 89, 98, and 104% of CS derived from the 3MT, respectively. There were no significant differences between threshold speeds derived from the IST and 3MT (p > 0.05), and nearly perfect correlations at LT (1.21 ± 0.06; 1.21 ± 0.06 m·s; r = 0.92) and LTP (1.33 ± 0.07; 1.33 ± 0.07 m·s; r = 0.90), and very large correlations at Smax (1.40 ± 0.06; 1.40 ± 0.07 m·s; r = 0.88; all p < 0.0001). Speeds estimated at 50 (1.11 ± 0.08 m·s) and 40 BBM (1.17 ± 0.07 m·s) were lower compared with LT, and speeds estimated at 30 (1.23 ± 0.07 m·s) and 20 BBM (1.29 ± 0.07 m·s) were lower compared with LTP and CS (all p < 0.02). The 3MT can therefore be used as an alternative to the IST to estimate exercise intensity boundaries, in practical settings where resources or time might be limited. However, the BBM significantly underestimates speeds at LT, LTP, and CS.

Importance of dimensional changes on glycolytic metabolism during growth.

The aim of the present study was to investigate (i) how glycolytic metabolism assessed by accumulated oxygen deficit (AODgly) and blood metabolic responses (lactate and pH) resulting from high-intensity exercise change during growth, and (ii) how lean body mass (LBM) influences AODgly and its relationship with blood markers. Thirty-six 11- to 17-year olds performed a 60-s all-out test on a rowing ergometer. Allometric modelling was used to investigate the influence of LBM and LBM + maturity offset (MO) on AODgly and its relationship with the extreme post-exercise blood values of lactate ([La]max) and pH (pHmin) obtained during the recovery period. AODgly and [La]max increased while pHmin decreased linearly with LBM and MO (r2 = 0.46 to 0.72, p < 0.001). Moreover, AODgly was positively correlated with [La]max (r2 = 0.75, p < 0.001) and negatively correlated with pHmin (r2 = 0.77, p < 0.001). When AODgly was scaled for LBM, the coefficients of the relationships with blood markers drastically decreased by three to four times ([La]max: r2 = 0.24, p = 0.002; pHmin: r2 = 0.30, p < 0.001). Furthermore, by scaling AODgly for LBM + MO, the correlation coefficients with blood markers became even lower ([La]max: r2 = 0.12, p = 0.037; pHmin: r2 = 0.18, p = 0.009). However, MO-related additional changes accounted much less than LBM for the relationships between AODgly and blood markers. The results challenge previous reports of maturation-related differences in glycolytic energy turnover and suggest that changes in lean body mass are a more powerful influence than maturity status on glycolytic metabolism during growth.

On-ice Energy Cost And Lactate Production During An All-out Anaerobic Test In Ice Hockey Players

The lack of ice hockey-specific lactic anaerobic assessment tools limits the ability of coaches to better track and develop their players. PURPOSE: Establish two predictive equations for assessing indirectly 1) the O2 energy expenditure, and 2) the maximum lactate concentration following an all-out on-ice skating effort. METHODS: Twenty male elite ice hockey players participated in this study (age=15.7±1.0 year). The maximal anaerobic skating test (MAST) consisted of skating back and forth on an 18.2m course at maximal speed with abrupt stops at each end for a total of 12 shuttles (average time=52.0±2.0s). The O2 energy cost was measured using a portable metabolic analyzer (Cosmed K4b2) and the maximum post-exercise lactate concentration at 1, 3, 5, 15, and 20 min was measured with a Lactate Pro analyzer. The independent variables used to estimate O2 consumption were body mass, time, heart rate, and the number of skating strides and skating stride index both measured at the 2nd shuttle. For the lactate concentration estimation, the independent variables used were time, heart rate, and the number of skating strides and skating stride index both measured at the 6th shuttle. RESULTS: Correlation coefficients for both equations were r=0.87 and standard error of estimate (SEE) were 6.2% and 6.8% respectively for O2 uptake and lactate production, indicating that validity of the regression algorithms were excellent. Particularly for the estimation of the lactate level, the removal of variables in relation to the skating efficiency reduces the correlation to 0.49 and increases the SEE to 10.5% thus indicating the importance of considering an index of skating efficiency during this type of evaluation. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, there is no specific ice hockey field test allowing the indirect estimation of O2 cost and lactate concentration in a purely anaerobic test. Thus, using simple and easy-to-measure variables, coaches will be able to monitor more effectively their players’ progress in an effort to optimize their individual on-ice anaerobic performance.

Effect Of A 2-km Swim On The Cycling Power-Duration Relationship

PURPOSE: Triathlon combines three sports (swimming, cycling, and running) into a single race and, because triathletes must cycle after the swimming, it is important to understand how cycling power may be affected by prior swimming. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a 2-km swim at a self-selected race pace intensity on the cycling power-duration relationship measured during a 3-min all-out cycling test (3MT). METHODS: Eighteen trained triathletes (12 M, 6 F; 37.1 ± 10.6 years, VO2max 54.8 ± 10.1 ml·kg−1·min−1) performed two 3MTs on separate days with one 3MT immediately following a 2-km swim (swim-bike; SB) and one without prior swimming (bike only; BO). The power-duration relationship was expressed as the total work done and subdivided into the end-test power (EP) and work done above EP. To assess swimming intensity, heart rate (HR) was continuously monitored during the swim and blood lactate was assessed immediately following the 2-km swim. RESULTS: End-swim lactate was 4.2 ± 1.8 mM and mean swimming heart rate was 147 ± 18 bpm. The 2-km swim decreased total work done during the 3MT by 6% (BO: 62.8 ± 12.7 kJ; SB: 58.9 ± 13.4 kJ; p = 0.001) though neither EP (BO: 281 ± 65 W; SB: 269 ± 68 W; p = 0.102) nor work done above EP (BO: 12.1 ± 3.8 kJ; SB: 10.5 ± 4.2 kJ; p = 0.096) differed between trials. Peak power was also assessed during the 3MT and did not differ between trials (BO: 552 ± 142 W; SB: 541 ± 147 W; p = 0.097). The change in EP was inversely correlated to the change in work above EP (r = -0.624; p = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: Total work done while cycling decreases following a 2-km race pace swim, although neither EP nor work above EP changed significantly. Triathletes may want to determine race cycling power following swimming because prior swimming affects performance during the 3MT. Future studies should look at how different swim pacing strategies affect the cycling power-duration relationship.

Effects Of A Race Timer On The 3 Minute All-out Test For Critical Power

The Critical Power (CP) model provides a valuable insight into the physiological capacities of an individual to perform work by profiling both aerobic and anaerobic capacities. The 3 Minute All-Out Test for Critical Power (3MT) was developed as a time conscious method for obtaining CP as well as providing insights into the amount of work done above CP (WEP). Concerns about pacing during the test lead researchers to develop a protocol which blinds participants to time during the 3MT. Due to the role that knowledge of time plays in anticipation, pacing, and decision-making during exercise, this protocol may lead to inaccurate results obtained from the 3MT. PURPOSE: To investigate the effects of incorporating a race timer in the 3MT. METHODS: Twelve healthy active males (Age: 24.9 ± 2.2 yrs; Height: 180.4 ± 7.5 cm; Weight 78.1 ± 6.6 kg; VO2peak 53.9 ± 6.1 ml.kg.min) completed one VO2peak test and one 3MT familiarization trial before completing one standard 3MT and one 3MT with the presence of a countdown race timer in a randomized and counterbalanced order. Paired T-tests were used to compare CP, WEP, PPO, Mean Power, Total Work, VO2peak, & HRmax. RESULTS: CP was significantly higher in the timer condition (Timer: 276.7 ± 49.6 Watts vs. Standard: 267.51 ± 44.54 Watts, p = 0.02) while WEP was significantly lower in the timer condition (Timer: 12.47 ± 4.01 kJ vs. Standard: 13.71 ± 4.34 kJ, p = 0.004). No significant differences were observed in PPO, Mean Power, Total Work, VO2peak, & HRmax between trials. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the knowledge of time (elapsed or remaining) may have a significant impact on CP and WEP in the 3MT. This impact may be due in part to the role that knowledge of time plays in pacing and decision making, and fits within the framework of the Affordances Competition Hypothesis. These findings warrant further investigation in more experienced cyclists in order to better understand what role knowledge of time plays in the 3MT.

Modeling the Recovery of W' in the Moderate to Heavy Exercise Intensity Domain.

This study (i) investigates the effect of recovery power (Prec) and duration (trec) on the recovery of the curvature constant (W') of the power-duration relationship, (ii) compares the experimentally measured W' balance to that predicted (W'bal) by two models (SK2 and BAR), and (iii) presents a case of real-time performance optimization using the critical power (CP) concept. Seven competitive amateur cyclists performed a ramp test to determine their V˙O2peak and gas exchange threshold, two to four 3-min all-out tests to determine CP and W', and nine intermittent cycling tests to investigate W' recovery. The intermittent cycling tests involved a 2-min constant work-rate interval above CP, followed by a constant work-rate recovery interval below CP (Prec and trec were varied), followed by a 3-min all-out interval. There was a significant two-way interaction between Prec and trec on W' recovery, P = 0.004 (η = 0.52). Simple main effects were present only with respect to Prec at each trec. The actual W' balance at the end of the recovery interval was less than the W'bal predicted by both SK2 (P = 0.035) and BAR (P = 0.015) models. The optimal strategy derived from the subject-specific recovery model reduced the race time by 55 s as compared with the self-strategy. This study has shown that in a recovery interval, Prec has a greater influence than trec on W' recovery. The overprediction of W'bal from SK2 and BAR suggests the need for individualized recovery parameters or models for sub-CP exercise. Finally, the optimal strategy results provide encouraging signs for real-time, model-based performance optimization.

Maximal lactate accumulation rate and post-exercise lactate kinetics in handcycling and cycling

The aim of this study was to assess lactate kinetics, maximal lactate accumulation rate (⩒Lamax) and peak power output (POmax) in a 15-s all-out exercise in handcycling (HC) and cycling (C) in terms of (1) reliability, (2) differences and (3) correlations between HC and C. Eighteen female and male competitive triathletes performed two trials (separated by one week) of a 15-s all-out sprint test in HC and C. Tests were performed in a recumbent racing handcycle and on the participants’ own road bike that were attached to an ergometer. Reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). POmax and ⩒Lamax demonstrated high reliability in HC (ICC = 0.972, ICC = 0.828) and C (ICC = 0.937, ICC = 0.872). POmax (d = −2.54, P < 0.0005) and ⩒Lamax (d = −1.62, P < 0.0005) were lower in HC compared to C. POmax and ⩒Lamax correlated in HC (r = 0.729, P = 0.001) and C (r = 0.710, P = 0.001). There was no significant correlation between HC and C in POmax (r = 0.442, P = 0.066) and ⩒Lamax (r = 0.455, P = 0.058). Whereas the exchange velocity of lactate (k1) was similar in HC and C, the removal velocity (k2) was significantly higher in HC. ⩒Lamax and POmax during sprint exercise are highly reliable and demonstrate a correlation in both HC and C. However, since ⩒Lamax and POmax are significantly higher in C and not correlated between HC and C, ⩒Lamax and POmax seem to be extremity-specific.

Biomechanics of all-out handcycling exercise: kinetics, kinematics and muscular activity of a 15-s sprint test in able-bodied participants

ABSTRACTThis study aims to quantify the kinematics, kinetics and muscular activity of all-out handcycling exercise and examine their alterations during the course of a 15-s sprint test. Twelve able-bodied competitive triathletes performed a 15-s all-out sprint test in a recumbent racing handcycle that was attached to an ergometer. During the sprint test, tangential crank kinetics, 3D joint kinematics and muscular activity of 10 muscles of the upper extremity and trunk were examined using a power metre, motion capturing and surface electromyography (sEMG), respectively. Parameters were compared between revolution one (R1), revolution two (R2), the average of revolution 3 to 13 (R3) and the average of the remaining revolutions (R4). Shoulder abduction and internal-rotation increased, whereas maximal shoulder retroversion decreased during the sprint. Except for the wrist angles, angular velocity increased for every joint of the upper extremity. Several muscles demonstrated an increase in muscular activation, an earlier onset of muscular activation in crank cycle and an increased range of activation. During the course of a 15-s all-out sprint test in handcycling, the shoulder muscles and the muscles associated to the push phase demonstrate indications for short-duration fatigue. These findings are helpful to prevent injuries and improve performance in all-out handcycling.

Effects of Prior Upper Body Exercise on the 3-min All-Out Cycling Test in Men.

Prior upper body exercise reduces the curvature constant (W') of the hyperbolic power-duration relationship without affecting critical power. This study tested the hypothesis that prior upper body exercise reduces the work done over the end-test power (WEP; analog of W') during a 3-min all-out cycling test (3MT) without affecting the end-test power (EP; analog of critical power). Ten endurance-trained men (V˙O2max = 62 ± 5 mL·kg·min) performed a 3MT without (CYC) and with (ARM-CYC) prior severe-intensity, intermittent upper body exercise. EP was calculated as the mean power output over the last 30 s of the 3MT, whereas WEP was calculated as the power-time integral above EP. At the start of the 3MT, plasma [La] (1.8 ± 0.4 vs 14.1 ± 3.4 mmol·L) and [H] (42.8 ± 3.1 vs 58.6 ± 5.5 nmol·L) were higher, whereas the strong ion difference (41.4 ± 2.2 vs 30.9 ± 4.6 mmol·L) and [HCO3] (27.0 ± 1.9 vs 16.9 ± 3.2 mmol·L) were lower during ARM-CYC than CYC (P < 0.010). EP was 12% lower during the 3MT of ARM-CYC (298 ± 52 W) than CYC (338 ± 60 W; P < 0.001), whereas WEP was not different (CYC: 12.8 ± 3.3 kJ vs ARM-CYC: 13.5 ± 4.1 kJ, P = 0.312). EP in CYC was positively correlated with the peak [H] (r = 0.78, P = 0008) and negatively correlated with the lowest [HCO3] (r = -0.74, P = 0.015). These results suggest that EP during a 3MT in endurance-trained men is sensitive to fatigue-related ionic perturbation.

Individualizing Training in Swimming: Evidence for Utilizing the Critical Speed and Critical Stroke Rate Concepts

To monitor physiological, technical, and performance responses to individualized high-intensity interval training (HIIT) prescribed using the critical speed (CS) and critical stroke rate (CSR) concepts in swimmers completing a reduced training volume program (≤30km·wk-1) for 15 weeks. Over the 15-week period, 12 highly trained swimmers (age 16 [1]y, height 179 [8]cm, weight 66 [8]kg) completed four 3-minute all-out tests to determine CS and the finite capacity to work above CS (D'), and four 200-m tests at CS to establish a CSR estimate. Combining CS and D', 2 HIIT sessions designed as 5 × 3-minute intervals depleting 60% of D' and 3 × 3.5-minute intervals depleting 80% of D' were prescribed once per week, respectively. An additional HIIT session was prescribed using CS and CSR as 10 × 150m or 200m at CS with 2 cycles per minute lower stroke rate than the CSR estimate. Additional monitored variables included peak speed, average speed for 150seconds (speed150s) and 180seconds (speed180s), competition performance and stroke length (SL), stroke count (SC), and stroke index (SI) adopted at CS. At the end of the intervention, swimmers demonstrated faster CS (mean change ± 90% confidence limits: +5.4 ± 1.6%), speed150s (+2.5 ± 0.9%), speed180s (+3.0 ± 0.9%), and higher stroke rate (+6.4 ± 3.0%) and stroke index (+4.2 ± 3.6%). D' was reduced (-25.2 ± 7.5%), whereas peak speed, SL, and SC changed only trivially. The change in the swimmers' personal best times in the first and second main event was -1.2 ± 1.3% and -1.6 ± 0.9%, respectively. HIIT prescribed based on the CS and CSR concepts was associated with improvements in several physiological, technical, and performance parameters in highly trained swimmers while utilizing time- and resource-efficient approach. This was achieved despite a ≥25% reduction in training volume.

Influence of a 2-km Swim on the Cycling Power-Duration Relationship in Triathletes.

Rothschild, J, Sheard, AC, and Crocker, GH. Influence of a 2-km swim on the cycling power-duration relationship in triathletes. J Strength Cond Res 36(5): 1431-1436, 2022-Triathletes must cycle after swimming, and so, it is important to understand how cycling performance may be affected by prior swimming. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a 2-km swim at a self-selected race-pace intensity on the cycling power-duration relationship. Eighteen trained triathletes (12 M, 6 F; 37.1 ± 10.6 years, V̇o2max 54.8 ± 10.1 ml·kg-1·min-1) performed two 3-minute all-out cycling tests (3MTs) on separate days with one 3 MT immediately after a 2-km swim (swim-bike [SB]) and one without prior swimming (bike-only [BO]). The power-duration relationship was expressed as the total work done (TWD) and subdivided into end-test power (EP) and work done above EP. To assess swimming intensity, heart rate (HR) was continuously monitored during the 2-km swim and blood lactate was assessed on completion of the swim. End-swim lactate was 4.2 ± 1.8 mM, and mean swimming HR was 147 ± 18 b·min-1. The 2-km swim decreased TWD during the 3MT by 6% (BO: 62.8 ± 12.7 kJ; SB: 58.9 ± 13.4 kJ; p = 0.001) though neither EP (BO: 281 ± 65 W; SB: 269 ± 68 W; p = 0.102) nor work done above EP (BO: 12.1 ± 3.8 kJ; SB: 10.5 ± 4.2 kJ; p = 0.096) differed between trials. In conclusion, TWD while cycling decreases after a 2-km race-pace swim. Results from this study suggest that triathletes should determine racing cycling power following a simulated race-pace swim.

Dynamic post-activation potentiation protocol improves rowing performance in experienced female rowers

ABSTRACT Post-activation potentiation likely acutely improves power-based performance; however, few studies have demonstrated improved endurance performance. Forty collegiate female rowers performed isometric potentiating (ISO), dynamic potentiating (DYN) and control (CON) warm-up protocols on a rowing ergometer, followed by a three-minute all-out test to evaluate their total distance, peak power, mean power, critical power, anaerobic working capacity (W’) and stroke rate. Fifteen-second splits were also analysed. ISO consisted of 5 × 5-second static muscle actions with the ergometer handle rendered immovable with a nylon strap, while DYN consisted of 2 × 10-second all-out rowing bouts, separated by a 2-minute rest interval. The participants were divided into high and low experience groups by median experience level (3.75 years) for statistical analysis. Significant differences (DYN > CON; p < 0.05) were found for distance (+5.6 m), mean power (+5.9 W) and W’ (+1561.6 J) for more experienced rowers (n = 19) and no differences for less experienced rowers (n = 18). Mean power in DYN was significantly greater than CON and ISO in the 15–30, 30–45, 45–60 and 60–75 second intervals independent of experience level. These results suggest that DYN may benefit experienced female rowers and that these strategies might benefit a greater power output over shorter distances regardless of experience.

A model-based estimation of critical torques reduces the experimental effort compared to conventional testing

PurposeCritical torque (CT) is an important fatigue threshold in exercise physiology and can be used to analyze, predict, or optimize performance. The objective of this work is to reduce the experimental effort when estimating CTs for sustained and intermittent isometric contractions using a model-based approach.Materials and methodsWe employ a phenomenological model of the time course of maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) torque and compute the highest sustainable torque output by solving an optimization problem. We then show that our results are consistent with the steady states obtained when simulating periodic maximum loading schemes. These simulations correspond to all-out tests, which are used to estimate CTs in practice. Based on these observations, the estimation of CTs can be formulated mathematically as a parameter estimation problem. To minimize the statistical uncertainty of the parameter estimates and consequently of the estimated CTs, we compute optimized testing sessions. This reduces the experimental effort even further.ResultsWe estimate CTs of the elbow flexors for sustained isometric contractions to be 28% of baseline MVIC torque and for intermittent isometric contractions consisting of a 3 s contraction followed by 2 s rest to be 41% of baseline MVIC torque. We show that a single optimized testing session is sufficient when using our approach.ConclusionsOur approach reduces the experimental effort considerably when estimating CTs for sustained and intermittent isometric contractions.

Critical speed and finite distance capacity: norms for athletic and non-athletic groups.

Two parameters in particular span both health and performance; critical speed (CS) and finite distance capacity (D'). The purpose of the present study was to: (1) classify performance norms, (2) distinguish athletic from non-athletic individuals using the 3-min all-out test (3MT) for running, and (3) introduce a deterministic model highlighting the relationship between variables of the 3MT. Athletic (n = 43) and non-athletic (n = 25) individuals participated in the study. All participants completed a treadmill graded exercise test (GXT) with verification bout and a 3MT on an outdoor sprinting track. Meaningful differences between non-athletic and athletic individuals (denoted by mean difference scores, p value and Cohen's d with 95% confidence intervals) were evident for CS (- 0.74ms-1, p < 0.001, d = - 1.41 [1.97, - 0.87]), exponential growth time constant ([Formula: see text]; 2.75s, p < 0.001, d = - 1.29 [- 1.45, - 0.42]), time to maximal speed ([Formula: see text]; - 2.80s, p < 0.001, d = - 0.98 [- 1.51, - 0.47]), maximal speed ([Formula: see text]; - 1.36ms-1, p < 0.001, d = - 1.56 [- 2.13, - 1.01]), gas exchange threshold (GET; - 5.62mlkg-1min-1, p < 0.001, d = - 0.97 [- 1.50, - 0.45]), distance covered in the first minute (1st min; - 81.69m, p < 0.001, d = - 1.91 [- 2.52, - 1.33]), distance covered in the second minute (2nd min; - 52.02m, p < 0.001, d = - 1.71 [- 2.30, - 1.15]) and maximal distance (- 153.78m, p < 0.001, d = - 1.27 [- 1.82, - 0.74]). The correlation coefficient between key physiological and performance variables are shown in the form of a deterministic model created from the data derived from the 3MT. Coaches and clinicians may benefit from the use of normative data to potentially identify exceptional or irregular occurrences in 3MT performances.