Alkyldiaminoethylglycine Hydrochloride Research Articles

Comparative Evaluation of Microorganism Disinfection Methods for N95 Respirators

Background: An excessive demand for N95 respirators occurred during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Therefore, health care workers were obligated to reuse N95 respirators, which were intended to be disposable. Aim: The primary objective of this study was to establish a standard procedure for safe disinfection or sterilization that does not affect the performance of an N95 respirator. Methods: As disinfection or sterilization methods, immersion in 70% ethanol, 0.1% hypochlorous acid, 0.3% peracetic acid, 0.2% alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride aqueous solution, hypochlorous acid water, or plant mineral-activated water, autoclaving, pasteurization and hydrogen peroxide plasma sterilization were used. After sterilization/disinfection, the filtration capacity of each N95 respirator was examined. Findings: The performance changes in the N95 respirator caused by each sterilization/disinfection method differed for each manufacturer’s product. Seventy percent ethanol, 0.1% sodium hypochlorite aqueous solution, 0.3% peracetic acid aqueous solution, autoclaving, hypochlorous acid water, and plant mineral-activated water significantly deteriorated the performance of N95 respirators. Performance degradation (increased permeability) was observed in 0.2% alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride aqueous solution and hydrogen peroxide plasma sterilization, and the permeation performance significantly deteriorated by 50–70% in all N95 respirators tested. Only pasteurization resulted in no deterioration in performance, even after five repeated sterilizations. Conclusion: Verification of sterilization/disinfection methods for the reuse of N95 respirators has shown that the currently recommended hydrogen peroxide plasma sterilization is inadequate as it increases permeability by more than 50% with a single treatment. In this study, pasteurization was found to be the optimal sterilization method.

Breaking away from an endemic state of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa by daily sink disinfection.

The detection rate of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients admitted to 2 wards and the intensive care unit decreased from 20.3% (129 of 636 isolates) to 4.2% (37 of 889 isolates) after the start of disinfection of hand washing sinks using alkyl diaminoethylglycine hydrochloride.

Chemical Sterilization of Lipoplasty Cannula and Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Disinfection: An Experimental Study.

Nontuberculous mycobacteria are commonly found pathogens; however, skin and soft tissue infections due to nontuberculous mycobacteria are often associated with surgical procedures, particularly after lipoplasty. Although nontuberculous mycobacteria are resistant to some chemical disinfectants, glutaraldehyde, peracetic acid, povidone iodine, alcohol, and chlorine are still used for the sterilization of medical instruments. This study investigated the efficacy of various disinfectants in a fatty environment with adipose and a bloody environment without adipose. In addition, this study was also used to identify the most effective disinfectant against nontuberculous mycobacteria. Three nontuberculous mycobacteria (Mycobacterium avium, M. abscessus, and M. fortuitum), pathogens frequently found in skin and soft tissue infections, were used. Seven chemical disinfectants were tested in both fatty and bloody environments. The disinfectants used were considered to have a sterilization effect when the log10 reduction factor exceeded 5. Most disinfectants had some sterilizing effects against nontuberculous mycobacteria; however, glutaraldehyde was the most effective against all 3. Chlorhexidine and povidone iodine also displayed sterilizing effects. Of the disinfectants tested, only alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride showed a diminished effect with statistical significance, specifically against M. fortuitum in a fatty environment, whereas it had effective results in a bloody environment. Glutaraldehyde showed the greatest sterilizing effect on nontuberculous mycobacteria with a log10 reduction factor >5 in both fatty and bloody environments. However, some chemical disinfectants did not show sufficient sterilizing effects in a fatty environment and, therefore, should be used with caution for the sterilization of nontuberculous mycobacteria. Level II.

Effect of carrot residue on the desiccation and disinfectant resistances of food related pathogens adhered to a stainless steel surfaces

To clarify the effects of vegetable residues on the resistances of food-related pathogens to drying and disinfectants, Salmonella Thyphimurium was dried with 50% w/w aqueous solutions of seven vegetables and cell survival was assessed. Bacterial suspensions in distilled water or aqueous solutions (0.1 ml of 8 log CFU/ml) were placed on 50 mmφ stainless dishes and dried at room temperature for 120 min. In the absence of aqueous solution, cell numbers decreased from 6.9 to 3.6 log CFU/dish. The solutions of carrot (CR) and green bell pepper (GB) clearly protected the cells. CR and GB also tended to protect the dried Staphylococcus aureus cells. The adhered and dried pathogens with CR were treated with 0.1 ml of 0.01% w/v hypochlorous acid (HC), 70% v/v ethanol (ET), 0.2% w/v alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride (AH) or 0.2% w/v benzalkonium chloride (BC) for 10 min. Adhered S. Typhimurium cells were protected from HC and ET treatments by the carrot solution. S. aureus was protected from HC, ET, and AH. BC showed clear disinfectant activity under all conditions. These results suggest that trace amounts of carrot sediment protect the bacteria on surfaces from the desiccation and disinfectant treatments, and might also contribute to cross contamination.

Effect of food residues on efficiency of surfactant disinfectants against food related pathogens adhered on polystyrene and ceramic surfaces

The adhesion of pathogenic bacteria on food contact surfaces increases the risk of cross-contamination in the food industry. However, food-borne disease introduced by the production process can be mitigated by surfactant use. This study investigates the effect of food residues (milk, beef gravy and tuna gravy) on the bactericidal efficiency of benzalkonium chloride (BAC) and alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride (AGH). The test was conducted on pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli O26, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and B. cereus spores) dried and adhered to the surfaces of polystyrene and ceramic dishes at room temperature for 1.5 h. The protein and lipid rich food residues protected the bacterial cells from dehydration and from the adverse effects of disinfectants, although bacterial numbers were decreased after drying and the surfaces were clearly sterilized after disinfectant treatment at typical concentrations (0.5 mg/ml–2.0 mg/ml) for 10 min. Following general and proper washing processes, the bactericidal effect of the disinfectants became clearly visible. These results indicate that applying a proper washing process prior to disinfectant treatment can prevent cross-contamination.

Microbial contamination of a disinfectant-soaked unwoven cleaning cloth

In December 2009, a 76-year-old male patient developed pneumonia due to Burkholderia cepacia whilst in an intensive care unit at a Japanese university hospital. During the subsequent environmental investigation to find the source, B.cepacia with an identical DNA type was found in his denture storage solution. Open packets of unwoven rayon cloths soaked in 0.2% alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride, used for environmental cleaning, were shown to be contaminated with B.cepacia, Alcaligenes xylosoxidans, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. B.cepacia of a different DNA type was found in five of 42 samples from sealed packets of cloths.

Surfactant-disinfectant resistance of Salmonella and Staphylococcus adhered and dried on surfaces with egg compounds

To confirm the importance of eliminating food sediments from the surfaces of food-related environments, we examined the resistance of pathogenic bacteria ( Salmonella Typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus) cells, dried and adhered on glass with 25% w/v egg albumen, 25% yolk or 50% whole egg solutions, against benzalkonium chloride and alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride. Bacterial suspensions (0.1 ml of 8 log cfu/ml) were put on 47 mm φ glass dishes and dried at room temperature (20–24 °C) for 180 min in a bio safety cabinet with ventilation. Although the viable cells in distilled water decreased 2.0 ( S. aureus)–3.5 ( S. Typhimurium) log fold during the drying period, the egg compounds protected the bacteria. The disinfectant treatments (2.0 mg/ml for 10 min) showed a clear bactericidal effect in the absence of egg compounds. However, the bactericidal effect disappeared in the presence of yolk and whole egg. Imaging before and after drying and the disinfectant treatments were carried out using a phase-contrast microscope and an atomic force microscope. The protective effect of egg compounds on bacterial viability disappeared with a proper washing process.

In vitro Algaecide Effect of Disinfectants on Prototheca zopfii Genotypes 1 and 2

Bovine mastitis due to Prototheca zopfii leads to reduced milk production and is difficult to cure. Therefore, prevention is the best approach and this is best achieved through the use of effective disinfectants. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro algaecide efficacy of conventional disinfectants against strains of P. zopfii genotype 1 and 2. The minimal algaecide concentration (MAC) of alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride, chlorhexidine, dioxide chlorine, povidone iodine and sodium hypochlorous acid against 10 isolates and the type strain (SAG2063(T)) of P. zopfii genotype 1 as well as 10 isolates and the type strain (SAG2021(T)) of P. zopfii genotype 2 were examined using the micro dilution method. This in vitro study indicated that alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride, chlorhexidine, povidone iodine and sodium hypochlorous acid, but not dioxide chlorine, are effective against both genotypes of P. zopfii.

Comparison with the Bactericidal Activities of Alkyldiamino Ethylglycine Hydrochloride and Alkylpolyamino Ethylglycine Hydrochloride against Various Bacteria

Comparison with the Bactericidal Activities of Alkyldiamino Ethylglycine Hydrochloride and Alkylpolyamino Ethylglycine Hydrochloride against Various Bacteria

Correlation between reduced susceptibility to disinfectants and multidrug resistance among clinical isolates of Acinetobacter species

The aim of this study was to investigate the susceptibility profiles to disinfectants and antimicrobial agents of 283 non-repetitive Acinetobacter clinical isolates obtained in 97 Japanese hospitals in March 2002. Susceptibility profiles of the above isolates to four disinfectants, six antimicrobial agents and two dyes were investigated. MICs were measured by the agar dilution method recommended by the CLSI (formerly NCCLS). MBC measurements and time-kill assays were performed using a slightly modified quantitative suspension test based on the European Standard EN 1040. No evident resistance to disinfectants was seen among the 283 strains of Acinetobacter spp. isolated in 2002, but the MIC(90)s of chlorhexidine gluconate, benzalkonium chloride and alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride were 50, 50 and 400 mg/L, respectively. Interestingly, the MICs of alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride and benzethonium chloride for four and three clinical isolates, respectively, reached 800 mg/L (approximately half the in-use concentration). The MBCs for the 28 disinfectant reduced susceptibility (DRS) isolates, for which the MICs of at least one of the four disinfectants tested were higher than the MIC(90), were comparable to those for susceptible isolates, in general; however, significant differences (P < 0.01) were observed between disinfectant-susceptible and DRS isolates in the time-kill assays of chlorhexidine gluconate, benzalkonium chloride and benzethonium chloride. Furthermore, DRS isolates tended to demonstrate multiresistance profiles to ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin and amikacin (P < 0.05). Since several Acinetobacter clinical isolates have developed augmented resistance to multiple antimicrobials and disinfectants, it is worth checking the susceptibility to disinfectants if multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter spp. are recurrently isolated clinically.

Reduction of disinfectant bactericidal activities in clinically isolated Acinetobacter species in the presence of organic material

In clinical Acinetobacter species, the reduction effects of organic material on bactericidal activities of four major disinfectants were investigated: chlorhexidine gluconate (CHX), benzethonium chloride (BZT), benzalkonium chloride (BZK) and alkyl diaminoethyl glycine hydrochloride (ADH). The bactericidal activities of the four disinfectants against 283 strains of Acinetobacter species recovered from 97 Japanese hospitals in March 2002 were investigated by four different tests: MIC measurements, MBC measurements, time-killing assays and adaptation assays. Moreover, disinfectant efficacy was examined in the presence of BSA in two tests: MBC measurements and time-killing assays. No clinical isolates were able to withstand the in-use concentrations of the four disinfectants, although the MIC90 of ADH reached 100 mg/L. Strains for which MICs of at least two disinfectants were higher than MIC90 measured by the broth microdilution method were defined as isolates with 'disinfectant reduced susceptibility (DRS)'. In the presence of 3.0% BSA, the MBCs of BZK, BZT and ADH for DRS isolates rose to 512 and 1024 mg/L, which were about half their in-use concentrations. Moreover, the times for bacterial complete killing were remarkably prolonged in DRS isolates even after a 10 min of exposure to 1000 mg/L of ADH, a half of its in-use concentration. The MICs of CHX for DRS isolates rose to 640 mg/L after repetitive passages in subinhibitory concentrations of CHX. Given that the bactericidal effects of the four major disinfectants were considerably reduced in the presence of organic material (BSA) and DRS isolates tended to adapt to CHX, continuous surveys of the profiles of susceptibility to disinfectants among clinically isolated Acinetobacter species are very necessary from the standpoint of nosocomial infection control.

Susceptibility of Biofilm Escherichia coli, Salmonella Enteritidis and Staphylococcus aureus to Detergents and Sanitizers

This study was conducted to investigate the susceptibility of the biofilm cells of Escherichia coli O157, Salmonella Enteritidis, and Staphylococcus aureus to some cleaning detergents and sanitizers. No weakly acidic, neutral, and weakly alkaline detergent could remove the biofilm bacteria from stainless steel chips at commonly used concentrations recommended by manufacturers. Among sanitizers, sodium hypochlorite did not completely inactivate any biofilm bacteria at active chlorine concentrations of 25 to 200 microg/ml. Benzalkonium chloride, alkyldiaminoethyl glycine hydrochloride, chlorhexidine digluconate, and polyhexamethylenebiganide inactivated the great majority of E. coli and S. Enteritidis at commonly used concentrations, but did not inactivate S. aureus effectively enough. The biofilm S. aureus population was shown to be more tolerant than the E. coli and/or S. Enteritidis populations to the sanitizers.

Susceptibilities of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolates to Seven Biocides

Minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of seven biocides for 42 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates at 5, 30, or 180 min, for hand scrubs or soaks, isolated in 2003 in Japan were determined. The MBC values of glutaraldehyde, povidone iodine, and ethanol were lower than the user concentrations in all exposure times. However, at 5 min exposure of sodium hypochlorite, benzalkonium chloride, alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride, and chlorhexidine digluconate some strains showed higher MBC values than the user concentrations. These results indicated the possibility that MRSA survived under proper user concentration conditions and exposure time.

Susceptibilities to antiseptic agents and distribution of antiseptic-resistance genes qacA/B and smr of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated in Asia during 1998 and 1999

Many antiseptic agents are used in hygienic handwashes in the prevention of nosocomial infections by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The plasmid-borne genes qacA/B and smr confer resistance to cationic antiseptic agents in S. aureus. In this study, the susceptibilities for dyes and antiseptic agents (e.g. acriflavine, acrinol, benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, chlorhexidine digluconate and alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride) of 894 isolates of MRSA collected from 11 Asian countries (South Korea, China, the Philippines, Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Saudi Arabia and Japan) between 1998 and 1999 were examined. In addition, the distributions of the antiseptic-resistance genes qacA/B and smr were studied by PCR. Among the Asian MRSA isolates 57.7% (516/894) were acriflavine-resistant. The smr gene was detected in 31.6% (12/38) of MRSA isolates from India but only in 1.9% (16/856) of all the isolates from other Asian countries. MRSA with qacA/B comprised 41.6% (372/894) of the isolates across Asia. In addition, PFGE was performed to type the MRSA and grouped the tested 30 MRSA isolates with qacA/B into 21 PFGE types. The results indicated that qacA/B is functionally the most important gene mediating antiseptic resistance in the MRSA strains of Asia and that a specific MRSA with qacA/B was not prevalent in Asia but qacA/B were widely spread among MRSA of Asia, while the geographical distribution of smr is more limited.

In vitro Antiseptic Susceptibility of Clinical Isolates from Nosocomial Infections

To evaluate the susceptibility of a large number of strains to various antiseptics, we elaborated a simple, qualitative broth turbidity method in which we could quickly judge the efficacy visually. For this method, we prepared a modified neutralizer broth, consisting of trypticase soy broth containing 15% Tween 80, 1% soybean lecithin and 0.5% sodium thiosulfate. The susceptibilities of Serratia marcescens No. 26 to 4 antiseptics obtained from the turbidity method showed a good agreement with those obtained from the colony-counting method; the 4 antiseptics tested were povidone-iodine (PVP-I), chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG), benzalkonium chloride (BAC) and alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride (AEG). Both PVP-I and BAC had complete efficacy in 0.5 min against all isolates tested [100 isolates of S. marcescens, 103 of Klebsiella pneumoniae, 99 of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 19 of Alcaligenes faecalis and 30 of A. xylosoxidans subsp. xylosoxydans (A. xylosoxydans)]. In contrast, the effectiveness of CHG was weak compared with PVP-I, BAC and AEG. Strong resistance against AEG was noted even after 3-min exposure in 1 isolate each of A. faecalis and A. xylosoxydans. It is concluded that the turbidity test is a simple and accurate method to evaluate susceptibility to various antiseptics and that it is suitable for a screening of a large number of strains. Among the 4 antiseptics tested, PVP-I and BAC showed a consistently high activity against all isolates, confirming PVP-I and BAC to be clinically useful antiseptics.

In vitro Evaluation of Skin Sensitivity of Povidone-Iodine and Other Antiseptics Using a Three-Dimensional Human Skin Model

Povidone-iodine (PVP-I) is an antiseptic which has been widely used in various fields. It was reported to have a weaker skin irritancy than other antiseptics in the Draize skin irritation test using rabbits. Recent increased concern for animal welfare requires us to use skin models in the tests as an alternative to animal testing. Actually, there are some skin models already commercialized, which are available to evaluate skin irritancy caused by e.g. chemical reagents, cosmetics or medicines. In this study, we evaluated the potential of a PVP-I solution and other antiseptics to cause irritation using a cultured human skin model (three-dimensional skin model) under conditions similar to clinical use. This skin model has two layers like a real skin, such as the dermis and epidermis which includes the cornified layer. For the evaluation of skin irritancy in this model, cell viability was evaluated by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay as an endpoint. Antiseptic formulations such as benzalkonium chloride (BAC), benzethonium chloride (BEC), chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) and alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride (AEG) were used in this study. As a result, PVP-I showed a significantly weaker skin irritancy compared to the other antiseptics. The present in vitro study results revealed a correlation with the results of previously conducted in vivo skin irritancy tests using rabbits.

Bactericidal Activities of Commonly Used Antiseptics against Multidrug-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Seventeen clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis were selected in order to study the bactericidal activities against drug-resistant M. tuberculosis. The effects of different antiseptics against multidrug-resistant M. tuberculosis (MDR-TB) were examined. Each of the test strains was cultured on the surface of an agar slant containing Löwenstein-Jensen medium. 0.05 ml of the bacillary suspension was poured into a test tube, and 0.45 ml of various antiseptics was added. After the bacilli had been exposed to the antiseptic solution with 2% human serum for various periods of incubation time, the antiseptic was inactivated by addition of 0.45 ml neutralizer, a mixture containing 10% Tween 80, 3% soybean lecithin and 0.5% sodium thiosulfate. As the results, povidone-iodine (PVP-I) at a concentration of 0.2% killed 99.9% or more of all strains tested within 30 s. All of the strains tested with PVP-I were killed almost completely within 60 s. There was no difference in bactericidal activities of PVP-I between standard strain H37Rv and MDR-TB. 99.9% or more of all strains tested were killed after exposure to 1.0% cresol for 60 s. In the case of cresol however, the exposure time of 30 s was not enough to get satisfactory effects. 2.0% glutaraldehyde needed 5 min to kill 99.99% or more of the bacilli tested, and 0.2% alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride required 60 min to do so. The results of bactericidal activities of common antiseptics against MDR-TB were similar to those against H37Rv. We conclude that the commercially available PVP-I product is a useful antiseptic against MDR-TB similar to other M. tuberculosis.

Effects of Disinfectants on Shiga-Like Toxin Converting Phage from Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7.

Inactivation of free phage carrying slt2 from enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157 : H7 by four kinds of common disinfectants in Japan was examined under conditions with (dirty) and without (clean) interfering substance. Ethanol (EtOH) inactivated the phage within one minute under both conditions. The effect of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) on this phage decreased under the dirty condition, but was potentiated by increasing the concentration and contact time to the degree that could be sufficient for practical use. Use of benzalkonium chloride (BAC) at a high concentration: 0.2%, would be effective. Alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride (DAG) was not effective on this phage.

臨床分離株に対する各種消毒剤の殺菌効力比較試験 （第４報）

At our hospital, we have been conducting experiments on the time course of bactericidal effectiveness of disinfectants against clinically isolated bacterial strains. In the present study, we investigated the following commonly used disinfectants; chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG), benzalkonium chloride (BAC), povidone iodine (PVP-I) and alkyl diaminoethylglycine hydrochloride (ADG). The results showed that PVP-I exhibited the greatest bactericidal effect among these disinfectants with a bactericidal time of within 20 seconds for both gram-positive and gramnegative bacteria. CHG, BAC and ADG appeared to have a relatively delayed bactericidal time against gram-positive bacteria and 7 of 9 strains tended to show resistance to these disinfectants. These findings point to the need to add ethanol in order to ensure the effectiveness of disinfec tion when using these agents. Furthermore, these disinfectants showed only poor bactericidal effectiveness at low concentrations against gram-negative bacteria, thus indicating that caution is needed when determining the appropriate concentration levels. Moreover, since our results for BAC and PVP-I differ from those described in our previous reports, extreme care is thus called for when determining the concentration levels and exposure times due to intrinsic bacterial factors and the time course of bactericidal effectiveness.

Fungicidal Activity of New Quaternary Ammonium Salts.

Quaternary ammonium salts (QAS), which are widely used as disinfectants, have the disadvantages of rusting and producing insoible salts in the presence of anionic surfactants. To deal with these drawbacks, we synthesized anti-rusting agent QAS by incorporating an alkyl phosphate anion to counter cationic surfactants. These new compounds have shown bactericidal effects and co-solubility. In this study, We evaluated the fungicidal activities of these new compounds, N-alkylN-2-hydroxyethyl-N, N-dimethylammonium alkyl phosphate (Pn-E analogues), N-alkylN-(2-hydroxy-3-phenoxy) propyl-N, N-dimethylammonium alkyl phosphate (Pn-PG1 analogues), as well as the effects of presently used disinfectants, [chlorhexidine digluconate (CHX), benzalkonium chloride (BAC), and digluconate (CHX), benzalkonium chloride (BAC), and alkyldiaminoethylglycine hydrochloride (ADE)], on pathogenic fungi, 3 strains ofCandida albicans, 2 strains ofCandida tropicalis, 1 strain ofCandida parapsilosis, 1 strain ofAspergillus niger, 2 strains ofAspergillus terreus, and 1 strain ofTrichophyton rubrum. Pn-E analogues and Pn-PG1 analogues at 0.1% concentration produced fungicidal effects onA niger only after 24 h but on other fungal strains after 1 h exposure. They showed the same fungicidal effects as those of BAC, CHX, and ADE on the 2 strains of C. tropicalis, and similar effects to those of BAC, CHX, and ADE inC. albicansdespite some differences among strains.