Alkaline Mineralization Research Articles

Effect of surfactant and mineralizer on the dielectric properties of zirconia nanocrsytals

The combined effect of surfactants (PVP/CTAB) and alkaline mineralizers (NaOH/NH4OH) on dielectric properties of zirconia nanocrystals is analyzed. It is found that, the stabilization of zirconia tetramers by surfactants and the rate of hydroxyl ions released by alkaline mineralizers have significant impact on the dielectric properties of nanocrystals. The PVP capped tetramers form highly conducting grains with insulating boundaries, whereas the grains of CTAB capped tetramers are highly insulating with conducting grain boundaries, as revealed by Nyquist plots. Consequently, the space charge polarization would be quite large in highly conducting grains resulting in higher dielectric constant values at lower frequencies. The higher dielectric constant of PVP capped nanocrystals is due to greater tetragonal coordination of 3d5/2 and 3d3/2 electrons of Zr4+ ions than that of CTAB capped nanocrystals. Further, the surface oxygen vacancies of PVP samples are higher, resulting in a high space charge polarization. The ESR signal corresponding to F+ centers appears stronger for PVP/NH4OH nanocrystals. Moreover, the larger ESR line width of PVP/NH4OH nanocrystals corresponding to more oxygen vacancies is in accordance with the inference attained from the XPS analysis.

Natronospira proteinivora gen. nov., sp. nov, an extremely salt-tolerant, alkaliphilic gammaproteobacterium from hypersaline soda lakes.

Brine samples from Kulunda Steppe soda lakes (Altai, Russia) were inoculated into a hypersaline alkaline mineral medium with β-keratin (chicken feather) as a substrate. The micro-organisms dominating the enrichment culture were isolated by limiting serial dilution on the same medium with casein as a substrate. The cells of strain BSker1T were motile, curved rods. The strain was an obligately aerobic heterotroph utilizing proteins and peptides as growth substrates. The isolate was an obligate alkaliphile with a pH range for growth from pH 8.5 to 10.25 (optimum at pH 9.5), and it was extremely salt tolerant, growing with between 1 and 4.5 M total Na+ (optimally at 2-2.5 M). BSker1T had a unique composition of polar lipid fatty acids, dominated by two C17 species. The membrane polar lipids included multiple unidentified phospholipids and two aminolipids. According to phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequence, the isolate forms a novel branch within the family Ectothiorhodospiraceae (class Gammaproteobacteria) with the highest sequence similarity to the members of this family being 91 %. On the basis of distinct phenotypic and genotypic properties, strain BSker1T (=JCM 31341T=UNIQEM U1008T) is proposed to be classified as a representative of a novel genus and species, Natronospira proteinivora gen. nov., sp. nov.

Modelling Continuous Process for Precipitated Calcium Carbonate Production from Oil Shale Ash

Oil shale ash has been described as an alternative calcium source for both CO2 absorption and to produce precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC)-type filler. The current study focuses on the feasibility of the technologies for upgrading the alkaline mineral waste on the basis of mathematical models which define the operating parameters and simulate the leaching of water-soluble waste ash components and the crystallisation of solid products in the multi-phase ash leachates–flue gas system. Proposed models using the Aspen Plus® platform was implemented and calculated both the design and operating parameters for leaching, carbonisation and aqueous phase recirculation. The accuracy of proposed PCC production (R2>93%) model was confirmed by directly comparing the results of process simulations with experimental data.

Solanum Muricatum Promotes Osteogenic Differentiation of Rat Bone Marrow Stromal Cells.

Solanum muricatum (SM), also known as pepino, is known for its antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of SM extract in promoting osteogenic differentiation and regulating the Wnt and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling pathways. Ingredients of pepino were extracted and identified. SM extracts were used to treat rat bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs), followed by evaluating alkaline phosphatase activities and mineralization levels. The mRNA levels of osteogenic biomarkers, including OPN and Collagen I, were also evaluated with real-time polymerase chain reaction. After treatment with SM extracts, the expressions of key proteins in the Wnt and BMP signaling pathways were assessed. DKK-1 and noggin, which are Wnt and BMP inhibitors, respectively, were added with SM extracts to investigate the role of Wnt and BMP pathways in the ameliorating effects of SM extract in osteogenesis. Treatment of BMSCs with SM extract promoted osteogenesis. Meanwhile, upregulations in the Wnt and BMP pathways were also observed. However, inhibiting both pathways compromised the effects of SM extract in promoting osteogenic differentiation. SM extract promotes osteogenic differentiation in BMSCs via promoting the Wnt and BMP signaling pathways.

Deacidification of acidic books and paper by means of non-aqueous dispersions of alkaline particles: A review focusing on completeness of the reaction

Deacidification refers to chemical treatments meant to slow down the acid hydrolysis and embrittlement of books and paper documents that had been printed on acidic paper. From the early 1800s up to about 1990, papermakers used aluminum sulfate, an acidic compound, in most printing papers. Certain deacidification methods use non-aqueous media to distribute alkaline mineral particles such as MgO within the pages of the treated books. Evidence is considered here as to whether or not the proximity of alkaline particles within such documents is sufficient to neutralize the acidic species present. Because much evidence suggests incomplete neutralization, a second focus concerns what to do next in cases where books already have been treated with a non-aqueous dispersion system. Based on the literature, the neutralization of acidic species within such paper can be completed by partial moistening, by high humidity and pressure, by water condensation, as well as by optional treatments to enhance paper strength and a final drying step.

Deacidification of Acidic Books and Paper by Means of Non-aqueous Dispersions of Alkaline Particles: A Review Focusing on Completeness of the Reaction

Deacidification refers to chemical treatments meant to slow down the acid hydrolysis and embrittlement of books and paper documents that had been printed on acidic paper. From the early 1800s up to about 1990, papermakers used aluminum sulfate, an acidic compound, in most printing papers. Certain deacidification methods use non-aqueous media to distribute alkaline mineral particles such as MgO within the pages of the treated books. Evidence is considered here as to whether or not the proximity of alkaline particles within such documents is sufficient to neutralize the acidic species present. Because much evidence suggests incomplete neutralization, a second focus concerns what to do next in cases where books already have been treated with a non-aqueous dispersion system. Based on the literature, the neutralization of acidic species within such paper can be completed by partial moistening, by high humidity and pressure, by water condensation, as well as by optional treatments to enhance paper strength and a final drying step.

Efficient removal of lead from solution by celery-derived biochars rich in alkaline minerals

Biochars were produced from celery biomass by slow pyrolysis at 350 and 500°C, and featured by high content of alkaline minerals namely salts of alkali and alkaline earth metals. The biochars’ efficiency on removing Pb2+ from solution was investigated, and two biochars derived from celery stalk (StC350 and StC500) showed higher Pb2+ sorption capacity (288 and 304mg/g) than most biochars reported previously. The sorption mechanisms involving precipitation, cation exchange and surface complexation are related to three biochar fractions namely water-soluble matter, acid-soluble substances and insoluble organic carbon. The relative contributions of water-soluble matter and acid-soluble substances to the total Pb2+ removal were 59.8% and 36.6% for the StC350 biochar, and 62.8% and 34.9% for the StC500 biochar, respectively. The results indicate that biochars derived from vegetable wastes are potential candidates for efficient sorption of heavy metals.

Dysregulated systemic lymphocytes affect the balance of osteogenic/adipogenic differentiation of bone mesenchymal stem cells after local irradiation

BackgroundWhile it is known that irradiation can induce local and systemic bone loss over time, how focal irradiation induces systemic bone complications remains unclear. Immune cells are thought to be crucial to bone homeostasis, and abnormal immune cells lead to serious disruption of bone homeostasis, such as in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. This disruption primarily occurs due to inhibition of the osteogenic differentiation of bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs).MethodsIn this study, we detected local and systemic bone loss in trabecular bone by micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) and measurement of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) expression in BMSCs using real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. Additionally, changes in lymphocytes (B cells and CD4+ and CD8+ T cells) in the peripheral blood and bone marrow were analysed by flow cytometry. BMSC-derived osteoblasts and adipocytes, cultured in osteogenic or adipogenic media or co-cultured with lymphocytes, were detected by BCIP/NBT, Alizarin Red S and Oil Red O staining.ResultsFocal irradiation induced local and systemic bone loss in trabecular bone. Increased PPARγ expression and decreased RUNX2 expression were observed, accompanied by upregulated adipogenesis and downregulated osteogenesis of BMSCs. B cells and CD8+ T lymphocytes were increased in the blood and bone marrow after irradiation, while CD4+ T lymphocytes were decreased in the blood. Inhibition of RUNX2 expression and reduction of alkaline phosphatase activity and mineralization deposits were observed in lymphocyte-co-cultured BMSCs, accompanied by an increase in PPARγ expression and in the number of lipid droplets.ConclusionsFocal irradiation induced local and systemic bone loss in trabecular bone. Increased B cells and CD8+ T lymphocytes led to systemic bone loss by decreasing BMSC osteogenesis.

Do rainfalls wash out anthropogenic airborne magnetic particulates?

We separated dust particles from the mesh-filtered sets of rainwaters collected on rainy days with daily precipitations exceeding 10 mm per day. A total of 136 rainwaters (or snow during the winter season) samples collected from February 2009 to February 2013 were analyzed. In particular, 33 out of 136 rainwaters were collected during or just after the Asian dust storm (ADS) events. Values of pH were relatively higher during warmer seasons. During ADS events, precipitations were alkaline, possibly due to abundant supply of alkaline minerals from the deserts source area to the precipitation. Compositional analysis on particulate matter (PM) indicated that Fe (and Al, K, and Mg) enriched the dusts collected during ADS, with respect to events than those without ADS. We found that ADS rainfall events are effective in selectively eliminating dust particles. However, high rainfall does not necessarily indicate more dilution of dusts. On microscopic examination, we observed natural soils, natural dust of pedogenesis or weathering origin, anthropogenic C–Fe-rich particles, and anthropogenic C-rich particles. Because of its small size, the stoichiometry of ADS-related, Fe-rich dust particles was inferred from the magnetic analysis. Presence of Verwey transition near 100–120 K and experimental determination of Curie points near 580 °C indicate that magnetic mineral responsible for the magnetic properties of ADS-related dusts was magnetite.

Spatial variability and possible sources of acetate and formate in the surface snow of East Antarctica

Spatial trends of acetate (Ac−) and formate (Fo−) were determined in surface snow samples along a coastal-inland transect (180km) in the ice cap region at Princess Elizabeth Land and along a coastal transect in the Amery Ice Shelf (130km), East Antarctica. Variations in both Ac− and Fo− seem to be unrelated to the acidity of snow. Ionic balance determined for the snow samples indicate the availability of HNO3 that could undergo photolysis to produce hydroxyl radical (OH), one of the major reactants involved in oxidation reactions with organic matter. The strong positive correlations between Ac− and NO3− in snow from both regions indicate that NO3− mediated OH-oxidation of organic compounds in snow could be an important source of Ac− within the snowpack. On the other hand, negative correlation between Fo− and NO3− might indicate that sources other than OH-oxidation of organic matter may be dominant in the case of Fo−. Higher Ac− concentrations in the ice cap compared to the ice shelf correspond with long-range transport of biomass burning emissions to the ice cap region. Interaction of Ac− and Fo− with alkaline minerals could lead to their stability in the snowpack and minimize their loss from the snow surface. Resident microbial communities could also influence the budget of the carboxylic acids in snow.

Supercritical CO2-involved water–rock interactions at 85℃ and partial pressures of 10–20 MPa: Sequestration and enhanced oil recovery

Studying the interactions between CO2-rich fluid and reservoir rock under reservoir temperature and pressure is important for investigating CO2 sequestration and the CO2-enhanced oil recovery processes. Using high-concentration CaCl2-type formation water as an example, this study performed a CO2-rich fluid–rock interaction experiment at 85℃ and compared the dissolution of calcite and sandstone samples, as well as sandstone powder and thin-slice samples. This study also investigated the effects of the sample surface area, the CO2 partial pressure ( PCO2 = 10 and 20 MPa), and the composition of formation water (3 mol/kg NaCl and 1 mol/kg CaCl2–2 mol/kg NaCl) on the water–rock interaction mechanism and process by weighing, ion chromatography, and scanning electron microscopy observations. The results showed that the injection of CO2 resulted in the dissolution of reservoir minerals such as carbonate cements and feldspar. The mineral dissolution increased with increasing PCO2. The dissolution of minerals such as calcite in the CaCl2-type formation water was significantly decreased because of the high concentration of Ca2+. Under the same conditions, more sandstone dissolved than calcite and more sandstone powder dissolved than sandstone thin slices. Dissolution of the potassium feldspar occurred in the sandstone, whereas the albite was nearly unaffected. No new minerals formed during the experimental process. The experimental results and a PHREEQC calculation demonstrated that the injection of CO2 causes a significant pH drop in the formation water, which improves the porosity and permeability of the reservoir, increases the capacity of the reservoir to store CO2, and facilitates the progression of the CO2-enhanced oil recovery process. However, if alkaline minerals in the caprocks of the reservoir are also dissolved by the CO2-rich fluid, the sealing capacity of the caprocks may be reduced.

The effect of chemical and mineralogical composition of red mud on alkalinity parameters

Red mud is highly alkaline colloidal suspension, which remains after processing bauxite into alumina by Bayer’s proceedings. Despite repeated washing red mud keep strong alkalinity, due to the presence of residual base and a number of alkaline minerals. This paper examines aspects of Bayer’s processes that affect the formation of alkalinity in the mud, and chemical reactions are considered significant for neutralization. Chemical and mineralogical content of red mud varies over a wide range. In the red mud appears a large number of minerals. Part of minerals that occur in the red mud originates from bauxite (insoluble minerals during leaching), and other minerals were synthesized due to the effect of process conditions on bauxite. These newly created minerals contribute significantly to the alkalinity of the red mud. Alkalinity of the red mud is most easily considered through the pH value. The pH of the solid phase of sludge is generally in the range from 10.5 to 12.5, and it is strongly buffered due to the presence of more alkaline minerals (hydroxides, carbonates, aluminates, and aluminosilicates). The presence of more buffering substances in the mud, causing a complex behavior of mud in the neutralization of acids. On neutralization curves are observed inflection points that are not typical of the pure substance. In addition to dissolving minerals holder alkaline anion, when considering the alkalinity should be considered alkaline anion exchange reactions occurring on the surface of metal oxides. Alkaline minerals are generally insoluble or poorly soluble in water, and dissolved in mineral acids. Therefore, the alkalinity of the red mud is very difficult to remove by washing with water. Treatment of mud with mineral acids, CO2, and gypsum causes a decrease of alkalinity. Aged sludge tailings also contributes to lowering the alkalinity. Finally, the alkalinity of the red mud is necessary to remove, as it is the undesirable property with a wide range of negative impacts. Knowledge of the neutralization mechanisms and dissolution, can contribute to the efficiency of the neutralization and finding new procedures, as well as different applications of neutralized red mud.

Effects of culture system and hypoxia on long-term expansion and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells derived from periodontal ligament

Periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs), located in the perivascular space of the periodontium were able to differentiate into periodontal cell types in vitro [1]. In this study, we investigated the effect of three different culture media and of low oxygen tension (1%) on the immunophenotype, proliferation rate and osteogenic potential of PDLSCs. This study was the first report to compare the PDLSCs from the same person in different culture systems. PDLSCs were harvested from three healthy third molars and the single-cells suspensions were cultured in the culture media a-MEM, DMEM and a new medium formulation (Enriched Ham’s F12 Medium, EHFM), respectively. PDLSCs were subcultured (4 x 103/cm2) until passage 7. The characterization of PDLSCs included FACS, immunofluorescence analysis and cell proliferation assay in both normoxia and hypoxia (1%). After culture in osteogenic medium for 7, 14 and 21 days, osteoblastic differentiation was evaluated by alkaline phosphatase activity, mineralization (alizarin red staining) and gene expression of osteogenic markers. Osteoblastic differentiation was also evaluated under hypoxic conditions. PDLSCs cultured in EHFM showed increased proliferation rate and CD73 overexpression compared to cells maintained in a-MEM and DMEM. On the other hand, PDLSCs grown in a-MEM and DMEM showed higher osteogenic differentiation potential compared to EHFM. Hypoxia affected both proliferation rate and osteogenic potential. On the basis of these results, we propose a two stages protocol for the osteogenic induction of PDLSCs, in which the early expansion stage could be performed in EHFM without loss of cell stemness. Furthermore, the results obtained in the different conditions (normoxia and hypoxia) suggest that oxygen tension plays a critical role in PDLSCs physiology.

The properties of inducible membranes in animals and humans

Membranes form around spacers used in large bone defects. We studied the effect of the spacer material on the ability of the membrane to promote osteogenesis in an animal model and the gene expression patterns of membranes obtained from humans. Critical-sized osseous defects were created in the ulnae of 12 rabbits. Stainless steel (SS) or polymethymethacrylate (PMMA) spacers were inserted into the defects, and the animals healed for four or eight weeks. After sacrifice, samples of the membrane were grown in cell culture. Human membrane samples were collected for gene expression analyses. Cultures of rabbit membranes with bone marrow cells showed significantly greater alkaline phosphatase activity (PMMA) and mineral deposition (SS) than bone marrow cells alone. All membranes had elevated expression of osteoblast-related genes. Inducible membranes around orthopaedic implants likely contain active cells of the OB lineage and the spacer material may influence the healing properties of the membrane.

Perfluorooctanoic acid induces mitochondrial dysfunction in MC3T3-E1 osteoblast cells

ABSTRACTPerfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a stable organic perfluorinated compound, is an emerging persistent organic pollutant, found widely in human and wildlife populations. Recent evidence suggests that exposure to environmental toxicants can be associated with higher risks of osteoporosis and fractures. We studied the cellular toxicology of PFOA in MC3T3-E1osteoblast cells. To examine the effect of PFOA, we measured cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial superoxide, and mitochondrial parameters including adenosine triphosphate (ATP) level, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), cardiolipin content, and cytochrome c release in MC3T3-E1 cells. Incubating MC3T3-E1 cells in different concentrations of PFOA for 48 h resulted in a concentration-dependent decrease in cell viability and significant inductions of ROS and mitochondrial superoxide. Moreover, PFOA induced MMP collapse, cardiolipin peroxidation, cytochrome c release, and decreased ATP levels, which in turn induced apoptosis or necrosis. When osteoblast differentiation markers were assessed, PFOA treatment caused a significant reduction in alkaline phosphatase activity, collagen synthesis, and mineralization in the cells. In summary, we found an ROS- and mitochondria-mediated pathway for the induction of cell damage by PFOA in MC3T3-E1 cells. Together, our results indicate that mitochondrial toxicity could be a plausible mechanism for the toxic effects of PFOA on osteoblast function.

Acid transformation of bauxite residue: Conversion of its alkaline characteristics

Bauxite residue (BR) is a highly alkaline solid hazardous waste produced from bauxite processing for alumina production. Alkaline transformation appears to reduce the environmental risk of bauxite residue disposal areas (BRDAs) whilst potentially providing opportunities for the sustainable reuse and on-going management of BR. Mineral acids, a novel citric acid and a hybrid combination of acid-gypsum treatments were investigated for their potential to reduce residue pH and total alkalinity and transform the alkaline mineral phase. XRD results revealed that with the exception of andradite, the primary alkaline solid phases of cancrinite, grossular and calcite were transformed into discriminative products based on the transformation used. Supernatants separated from BR and transformed bauxite residue (TBR) displayed distinct changes in soluble Na, Ca and Al, and a reduction in pH and total alkalinity. SEM images suggest that mineral acid transformations promote macro-aggregate formation, and the positive promotion of citric acid, confirming the removal or reduction in soluble and exchangeable Na. NEXAFS analysis of Na K-edge revealed that the chemical speciation of Na in TBRs was consistent with BR. Three acid treatments and gypsum combination had no effect on Na speciation, which affects the distribution of Na revealed by sodium STXM imaging.

Detailed chemical composition of tequesquite, a pre-Hispanic and traditional mineral resource used in Mexico for culinary purposes

T equesquite is an alkaline mineral complex used in Mexico with culinary purposes since pre- Hispanic times. It is produced through evaporation and crystallization of remnant for mer Lake Texcoco brackish waters. Despite pre-Hispanic background use of this mineral complex, it was only until the first half of the XX century that analyses were performed to determine its gross chemical composition. However, more detailed information is unavailable in spite of recent technological advances in analytical procedures. In this study samples from different sources were obtained and analyzed to obtain more information about its chemical and elemental composition and to determine possible variations in their composition. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDXRA) and X-ray (XRD) diffraction were employed to determine composition of raw and depurated samples (in which clays and sands were removed through solubilization in deionized water). SiO 2 , NaCl, Na 2 CO 3 , and trona were identified in raw samples, whereas NaCl, trona, K 2 SO 4 , and KCl were detected in samples free of insoluble material. SEM images showed diverse crystal morphology types with different elemental composition, whereas XRD pat terns revealed that tequesquite depicts the same diversity of chemical species despite dif ferent origin. Presence of toxic compounds was discarded, thus confirming its safe use for human consumption. This is the first report of detailed composition of an ancient mineral resource mainly used for culinary purposes that could be of potential use in other applications (e. gr. Spirulina cultivation).

Draining and salting as responsible key steps in the generation of the acid-forming potential of cheese: Application to a soft blue-veined cheese

A disregarded nutritional feature of cheeses is their high acid-forming potential when ingested, which is associated with deleterious effects on consumers’ health. This work aimed to characterize the acid-forming potential of a blue-veined cheese during manufacturing to identify the main steps of the process involved in this phenomenon. Sampling was performed on 3 batches at 10 steps of the cheese-making process: reception of raw milk, pasteurization, maturation of milk, coagulation, stirring, draining of the curds, and 4 ripening stages: 21, 28, 42, and 56d. The acid-forming potential of each sample was evaluated by (1) the calculation of the potential renal acid load (PRAL) index (considering protein, Cl, P, Na, K, Mg, and Ca contents), and (2) its organic anion content (lactate and citrate), considered as alkalinizing elements. Draining and salting were identified as the main steps responsible for generation of the acid-forming potential of cheese. The draining process induced an increase in the PRAL index from 1.2mEq/100g in milk to 10.4mEq/100g in drained curds due to the increase in dry matter and the loss of alkaline minerals into the whey. The increase in PRAL value (20.3mEq/100g at d 56) following salting resulted from an imbalance between the strong acidogenic elements (Cl, P, and proteins) and the main alkalinizing ones (Na and Ca). Particularly, Cl had a major effect on the PRAL value. Regarding organic anions, draining induced a loss of 93% of the citrate content in initial milk. The lactate content increased as fermentation occurred (1,297.9mg/100g in drained curds), and then decreased during ripening (519.3mg/100g at d 56). This lactate level probably helps moderate the acidifying potential of end products. Technological strategies aimed at limiting the acid-forming potential of cheeses are proposed and deserve further research to evaluate their nutritional relevance.

Feedstocks study on CO2 mineralization technology

A tremendous amount of CO2 has been released into the atmosphere over the past two centuries as a result of excessive use of fossil fuels. A variety of methods to reduce CO2 emissions into the atmosphere have been proposed, but none of them so far has attained a concrete breakthrough. Developing new technologies using CO2 and industrial alkaline wastes as alternatives to petroleum-based feedstocks may offer attractive opportunities to reduce both the greenhouse gas emissions and the reliance on petroleum derivatives for production of important base chemical commodities. Recently, a novel technique about harvesting electricity from CO2 mineralization was proposed by our group based on the principle that chemical energy released from CO2 mineralization process can be converted into electricity in addition to some high value chemical products of the reaction. However, this technology brings into question a number of issues including the chemical mechanisms taking place in the system, the availability of adequate mineralizing feedstocks for harvesting electricity, the quantity of CO2 that can be sequestered, and the quantity of electricity that can be generated by the CO2 mineralization process. A detailed investigation of the CO2 mineralization was conducted including a study of the required raw materials herein classified as alkali and alkaline minerals, industrial alkaline solid wastes and waste water. The great significance of environmental implications estimates that approximately 10492.32 million tons and 150.35 million tons of CO2 can be mineralized worldwide and in China, respectively. In other words, annually 250.94 and 147.71 million tons of CO2 can be sequestered worldwide and in China, respectively. Accordingly, the total amount of electricity produced will reach 2687.03 and 40.50 billion kWh worldwide and in China, respectively, i.e., 69.33 billion kWh worldwide and 39.94 billion kWh in China, annually.

The Reactions of Condensation–Dehydration Occurring in Aqueous Alkaline Solutions at Рн = 9–11 and T = 65–95 0C in the Process of Modeling of Primary Hydrosphere

The reactions of condensation–dehydration occurring in alkaline aqueous solutions at t = 65–95 0 C and рН = 9–11, resulting in synthesis from unorganic molecules the larger organic molecules as polymers and short polipeptides in the process of modeling of primary hydrosphere, were discussed, as well as the possible mechanisms of the deuterium accumulation in form of HDO in hot water. For this aim we performed experiments with hot mineral water and seawater from Bulgaria and water with varying content of deuterium using IR- and DNES-spectroscopy. As model systems were used cactus juice of Echinopsis pachanoi and Mediterranean jellyfish Cotylorhiza tuberculata . It was demonstrated that hot alkaline mineral water with temperature from +65 0 C to +95 0 C and the pH value from 9 to 11 is more suitable for the origination of life and living matter than other analyzed water samples. In hot mineral waters the local maximums in IR-spectra are more manifested compared to the local maximums obtained in IR-spectra of the same water at a lower temperature. The difference in the local maximums from +20 0 C to +95 0 C at each +5 0 C according to the Student t -criterion makes up p < 0,05. Keywords : deuterium, hydrosphere, evolution, origin of life, condensation-dehydratation, IR-spectroscopy.