Alkaline Igneous Rocks Research Articles

Geology and ore genesis of the carbonatite-associated Yangibana REE district, Gascoyne Province, Western Australia

The Yangibana rare earth element (REE) district consists of multiple mineral deposits/prospects hosted within the Mesoproterozoic Gifford Creek Carbonatite Complex (GCCC), Western Australia, which comprises a range of rock types including calcite carbonatite, dolomite carbonatite, ankerite–siderite carbonatite, magnetite–biotite dykes, silica-rich alkaline veins, fenite, glimmerites and what have historically been called “ironstones”. The dykes/sills were emplaced during a period of extension and/or transtension, likely utilising existing structures. The Yangibana REE deposits/prospects are located along many of these structures, particularly along the prominent Bald Hill Lineament. The primary ore mineral at Yangibana is monazite, which is contained within ankerite–siderite carbonatite, magnetite–biotite dykes and ironstone units. The ironstones comprise boxwork-textured Fe oxides/hydroxides, quartz, chalcedony and minor monazite and subordinate rhabdophane. Carbonate mineral-shaped cavities in ironstone, fenite and glimmerite alteration mantling the ironstone units, and ankerite–siderite carbonatite dykes altering to ironstone-like assemblages in drill core indicate that the ironstones are derived from ankerite–siderite carbonatite. This premise is further supported by similar bulk–rock Nd isotope composition of ironstone and other alkaline igneous rocks of the GCCC. Mass balance evaluation shows that the ironstones can be derived from the ankerite–siderite carbonatites via significant mass removal, which has resulted in passive REE concentration by ~ 2 to ~ 10 times. This mass removal and ore tenor upgrade is attributed to extensive carbonate breakdown and weathering of ankerite–siderite carbonatite by near-surface meteoric water. Monazite from the ironstones has strong positive and negative correlations between Pr and Nd, and Nd and La, respectively. These relationships are reflected in the bulk–rock drill assays, which display substantial variation in the La/Nd throughout the GCCC. The changes in La/Nd are attributed to variations in primary magmatic composition, shifts in the magmatic-hydrothermal systems related to CO2 versus water-dominated fluid phases, and changes in temperature.

Geochemical and Sr–Nd–Hf–O isotopic constraints on the source and petrogenesis of the Xiangshuigou silicic alkaline igneous complex from the northern margin of the North China Craton

We present eudialyte and zircon U–Pb ages, whole-rock geochemical, and Sr–Nd–Hf and zircon Hf–O isotope data for the Xiangshuigou silicic alkaline igneous complex from the northern margin of the North China Craton (NCC). We use these data to investigate the source and petrogenesis of these alkaline igneous rocks and the lithospheric mantle evolution of the NCC. The Xiangshuigou complex consists of nepheline and porphyritic syenites without associated mafic or intermediate rocks. Zircon and eudialyte U–Pb dating yielded consistent ages of 227–219 Ma for these rocks. All the alkaline igneous rocks from the Xiangshuigou complex have high Na2O, Al2O3, Rb, Th, and Zr, and low MgO, CaO, P2O5, and Ba contents, and are enriched in large-ion lithophile and light rare earth elements. These rocks are not depleted in high-field-strength elements. Whole-rock Nd–Hf isotopic compositions are slightly enriched, with εNd(t) = −3.7 to −3.0 and εHf(t) = −3.1 to +0.6. Zircon Hf–O isotope analyses yielded εHf(t) and δ18O values of −0.6 to −6.0 and +5.1‰ to +6.0‰, respectively. These geochemical and isotopic features suggest that the silicic alkaline igneous rocks were derived by partial melting of an enriched lithospheric mantle source before experiencing protracted two-stage fractional crystallization. The lithospheric mantle source of the Xiangshuigou complex was distinct from the Paleozoic cratonic lithospheric mantle and experienced mantle metasomatism by depleted mantle-derived carbonate-bearing materials prior to the alkaline magmatism. This indicates that, in addition to subducted crustal melts/fluids, asthenosphere-derived materials were also involved in modifying the lithospheric mantle of the northern NCC. As such, our work not only approves the effectivity of using whole-rock geochemistry and Sr–Nd–Hf–O isotopic data to reveal origin of the silicic alkaline igneous rocks, but also argues for a multiple modification for the northern NCC during the late Paleozoic to early Mesozoic.

Employing geochemistry and geochronology to unravel genesis and tectonic setting of iron oxide-apatite deposits of the Bafq-Saghand metallogenic belt, Central Iran

The Bafq-Saghand metallogenic belt is located in the central part of the Kerman–Kashmar tectonic zone and contains 39 individual occurrences of iron oxide-apatite ± REE mineralizations. These mineral concentrations, e.g., Chadormalu, Choghart, Sechahun, and Esfordi, comprise a total of ~ 1500 million tons of iron ore with an average grade of ~ 55% Fe. In terms of origin, time, and geodynamic setting, several modes of formation have been suggested for these ore deposits, including magmatic, hydrothermal, and banded iron formation scenarios. In the present study, the tectonic setting and metallogeny of iron oxide-apatites of the Bafq-Saghand belt are investigated utilizing trace element geochemistry, age dating, and oxygen isotope analyses. The geochemical characteristics of apatite and magnetite and the δ18O values of magnetite (from − 0.1 to + 2.2 ‰) indicate a dominantly magmatic-hydrothermal (δ18O > + 0.9 ‰) formation process, although primary magmatic mineralizations were locally leached and hydrothermally redeposited (e.g., samples with δ18O < + 0.9 ‰). The Cambrian volcano-sedimentary host rocks to the mineralization is intruded by calc-alkaline tonalite, trondhjemite, granodioritic, dioritic, and granitic rocks that formed in association with subduction of the Proto-Tethys Ocean under the Gondwana supercontinent in the Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian (525–547 Ma). Additionally, a later geodynamic episode produced intrusions of alkaline syenite and monzosyenite bodies during a continental rifting event. We provide new geochronological constraints for these younger alkaline igneous rocks that document a temporal range from 421 to 447 Ma for their intrusion. In combination with the previously reported overlapping ages of the older calc-alkaline magma bodies (525–547 Ma) with the volcano-sedimentary host rock (528 Ma) and the iron oxide mineralization (510–539 Ma), we can now exclude continental rifting as a geodynamic processes that is linked to ore formation in the region. Our results corroborate that the Bafq iron ore mineralization formed during subduction of the Proto-Tethys Ocean under the Gondwana supercontinent in a near surface continental margin setting.

40Ar/39Ar Geochronology and New Mineralogical and Geochemical Data from Lamprophyres of Chompolo Field (South Yakutia, Russia)

The alkaline igneous rocks of the Chompolo field (Aldan shield, Siberian craton), previously defined as kimberlites or lamproites, are more correctly classified as low-Ti lamprophyres. The emplacement age of the Ogonek pipe (137.8 ± 1.2 Ma) and the Aldanskaya dike (157.0 ± 1.6 Ma) was obtained using 40Ar/39Ar K-richterite dating. The Chompolo rocks contain abundant xenocrysts of mantle minerals (chromium-rich pyropic garnets, Cr-diopsides, spinels, etc.). The composition of the mantle xenocrysts indicates the predominance of spinel and garnet–spinel lherzolites, while the presence of garnet lherzolites, dunites, harzburgites, and eclogites is minor. The Chompolo rocks are characterized by large-ion lithophile element (LILE) and Light Rare Earth Element (LREE) enrichments, and high field strength element (HFSE) depletions. The rocks of the Ogonek pipe have radiogenic Sr (87Sr/86Sr (t) = 0.70775 and 0.70954), and highly unradiogenic εNd(t) (−20.03 and −20.44) isotopic composition. The trace element and isotopic characteristics of the Chompolo rocks are indicative of the involvement of subducted materials in their ancient enriched lithospheric mantle source. The Chompolo rocks were formed at the stage when the Mesozoic igneous activity was triggered by global tectonic events. The Chompolo field of alkaline magmatism is one of the few available geological objects, which provides the opportunity to investigate the subcontinental lithospheric mantle beneath the south part of the Siberian craton.

Emplacement of magmatic Cu-Au-Te(-Ni-PGE) sulfide blebs in alkaline mafic rocks of the Mordor Complex, Northern Territory, Australia

Magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide mineralisation is mostly confined to tholeiitic to komatiitic mafic-ultramafic intrusions, yet there have been an increasing number of occurrences recorded in alkaline-ultramafic, post-collisional magmatic systems, particularly in the lower and middle crust that generally display a characteristic Cu-Au-Te enrichment over more conventional Ni-Cu(-PGE) mineralisation. The Mordor Alkaline Igneous Complex, Australia, is a mid-crustal, zoned alkaline complex comprised of a syenite body with an alkaline mafic-ultramafic subcomplex containing dunites, wehrlites and shonkinites. Sulfide mineralisation is present either in thin, PGE-enriched stratiform ‘reefs’ within layered ultramafics in the centre of the subcomplex, or in thicker zones of Cu(-Au-PGE-Te) sulfide hosted by phlogopite-rich shonkinites towards the intrusion margins. This latter style comprises blebs of pyrite, chalcopyrite and minor millerite and PGE tellurides formed from the cooling of a Cu-dominant sulfide liquid. Primary igneous calcite is present in intimate association with the sulfide. We note that the circular nature of the complex, with a dunite core and shonkinite rim with chalcophile element mineralisation, is comparable to the pipe-like, intracratonic, alkaline-ultramafic Aldan Shield intrusions in Russia. As such, Mordor may have an intracratonic rather than post-collisional affinity. Nevertheless, sulfide mineralisation is typical of other alkaline-hosted occurrences, with a Cu-Au-Te-rich signature, low Ni contents and textural association with calcite, supporting models of chalcophile metal and S fluxing alongside carbonate in alkaline systems derived from low degrees of partial melting of hydrous and carbonated mantle sources. Mordor illustrates that alkaline igneous rocks are prospective for magmatic Cu-Au-PGE-Ni sulfide mineralisation, and the classic ‘marginal base metal– and sulfide-rich’ and ‘stratiform PGE-rich and sulfide-poor’ mineralisation styles may both be found in such intrusions.

A comparison of global rare earth element (REE) resources and their mineralogy with REE prospects in Sri Lanka

Rare earth elements (REEs), a group of 17 elements comprises 15 lanthanides, scandium and yttrium, are largely attracting the world’s attention due to their importance in a wide variety of advanced technological applications. Global REEs production is mainly sourced from resources, such as carbonatites, alkaline igneous rocks, placers, laterites, and ion-adsorption clays. Recently, REE demand has been escalating, especially due to the REE applications in renewable energy and defense sectors, expecting a worldwide shortage of REE supply in the future. Therefore, REEs have been widely accepted as strategic elements in the world, which compels to prospect for new and alternative REE resources. In this context, Sri Lanka has a favorable geological setting which implies the presence of REE mineralization. Previous geochemical studies in Sri Lanka have reported significant concentrations of REEs in different geological formations and mineral resources. Accordingly, Pulmoddai and other beach placer deposits, Eppawala carbonatite, alluvial placer deposits, and pegmatites have been identified as potential REE resources in Sri Lanka. Monazite, apatite, allanite, and zircon are the primary rare earth (RE) minerals found in the preceding resources. The Pulmoddai mineral sand deposit is considered as the most potential REE resource in the island, which is enriched in monazite containing more than 61% of light rare earth elements (LREEs). Similarly, Eppawala carbonatite contains high concentrations of LREEs. However, despite their significant REE enrichments, to date, no attempt has been made to recover these REE prospects, which essentially conceals their potential of catering for both local and global REE supply chains.

A new statistical approach to the geochemical systematics of Italian alkaline igneous rocks

Abstract The ultra-alkaline rocks have exotic features that frustrated many attempts to group them in a single classification diagram. A consistent classification would be very useful to define a possible consanguinity, an argument that feed a living debate. This paper investigates the petrologic characteristics of the Cenozoic Italian ultra-alkaline rock-suite using -Rank Entropy Anentropy (RHA) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA)-. The RHA formula is the succession of component’s symbols arranged according to the diminishing of their elemental content in the analysis (whole rock composition). Other two parameters considered are an expression of the anentropy and entropy of the system. The PCA allows the definition of new latent variables based on geochemical compositions through linear combinations of the major oxides. Using both statistical methods was possible to create discrete groups of rock-types, associated by genetic relationship. The groups plotted in the Mg-Ca-Al ternary diagram depicts two main evolutionary arrays. We interpret the chemical variance in term of a general magmatic processes based on immiscibility and crystal fractionation. A comparison with similar association worldwide give a more general prospective to the magmato-tectonic assignment of these rocks, which is highly controversial in Italy.

Boron isotope insights into the origin of subduction signatures in continent-continent collision zone volcanism

We present the first boron abundance and δ11B data for young (1.5-0 Ma) volcanic rocks formed in an active continent-continent collision zone. The δ11B of post-collisional volcanic rocks (−5 to +2‰) from the Armenian sector of the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone are heavier than mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB), confirming trace element and isotope evidence for their derivation from a subduction-modified mantle source. Based on the low B/Nb (0.03-0.25 vs 0.2-90 in arc magmas), as well as low Ba/Th and Pb/Ce, this source records a subduction signature which is presently fluid-mobile element depleted relative to most arc settings. The heavier than MORB δ11B of post-collision volcanic rocks argues against derivation of their subduction signature from a stalled slab, which would be expected to produce a component with a lighter than MORB δ11B, due to previous fluid depletion. Instead, the similarity of δ11B in Plio-Pleistocene post-collision to 41 Ma alkaline igneous rocks also from Armenia (and also presented in this study), suggests that the subduction signature is inherited from Mesozoic-Paleogene subduction of Neotethys oceanic slabs. The slab component is then stored in the mantle lithosphere in amphibole, which is consistent with the low [B] in both Armenian volcanic rocks and metasomatic amphibole in mantle xenoliths. Based on trace element and radiogenic isotope systematics, this slab component is thought to be dominated by sediment melts (or supercritical fluids). Previously published δ11B of metasediments suggests a sediment-derived metasomatic agent could produce the B isotope composition observed in Armenian volcanic rocks. The lack of evidence for aqueous fluids preserved over the 40 Myr since initial collision supports observations that this latter component is transitory, while the lifetime of sediment melts/supercritical fluids can be extended to >40 Myr.

Silicate-Carbonate Liquid Immiscibility: Insights from the Crevier Alkaline Intrusion (Quebec)

Abstract This contribution explores the petrogenetic relationships between silicate and carbonatitic rocks in the Crevier Alkaline Intrusion (CAI, Québec, Canada). The CAI is located in the Proterozoic Grenville Province and is composed of a suite of undersaturated peralkaline rocks from ijolite to nepheline syenite and carbonatites. Petrogenetic relationships between different undersaturated alkaline igneous rocks, carbonate-bearing and carbonate-free nepheline syenite and carbonatites observed in the CAI suggest that (1) carbonate-bearing and carbonate-free silicate rocks are comagmatic with carbonatite, and that (2) both silicate and carbonatitic liquids are fractionated from an ijolitic parental magma that has undergone liquid immiscibility. One of the observed facies is characterized by spectacular ocelli of carbonate-bearing nepheline syenite in a matrix of carbonatite. The younger nepheline syenite facies can be divided into two groups based on the presence or absence of magmatic carbonates. Both groups are characterized by the presence of pyrochlore-group minerals that carry the Nb–Ta mineralization. We specifically use accessory minerals such as zircon, pyrochlore and apatite to constrain the temporal and physicochemical parameters of the immiscibility process. By coupling (1) mineral textures, (2) trace elements, (3) Ti-in-zircon thermometry, and (4) oxygen isotope compositions, we have traced the crystallization of zircon before, during and after the immiscibility process. The results allowed us to constrain the minimum temperature of this process at ∼815–865°C. In addition, two magmatic populations of pyrochlore are identified through their petrographic and geochemical characteristics within the younger nepheline syenite facies. Pyrochlore from the earlier ocelli facies of carbonate-bearing nepheline syenite follow a Nb–Ta differentiation trend, whereas pyrochlore from the younger carbonate-free nepheline syenite follow a more classical Nb–Ti trend. Following the complete immiscibility between the silicate and carbonatitic liquids, the fractionation between Nb and Ta stopped while a new generation of Nb-rich pyrochlore grew, displaying a more classical Nb–Ti fractionation trend and a higher Nb/Ta ratio in the nepheline syenite.

Mineralogical constraints on Nb–REE mineralization of the Zhujiayuan Nb (−REE) deposit in the North Daba Mountain, South Qinling, China

The trachyte‐hosted Zhujiayuan deposit is located in the North Daba Mountain of South Qinling, China. In this deposit, the presence of different stages and genetic types of biotite, apatite, and rutile make it an excellent locality to constrain the mineralization process of Nb–REE in the alkaline igneous rock. In this study, supported by electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA), chemical analyses of biotite, apatite, rutile, columbite‐group minerals, fersmite, monazite, and aeschynite‐group minerals were presented. Three types of biotite were identified, including magmatic (Bt‐1), reequilibrated (Bt‐2), and hydrothermal biotite (Bt‐3). Apatite can be divided into two types: magmatic (Ap‐1) and hydrothermal apatite (Ap‐2). Rutile can also be divided into two types: magmatic (Rt‐1) and hydrothermal rutile (Rt‐2). Rt‐1 and Ap‐1 contain average 1.44 wt% Nb2O5 and 4.14 wt% LRE2O3, respectively, indicating that certain concentrations of Nb and REE were incorporated into the rutile and apatite, respectively, during the magmatic crystallization process. The distributions of the columbite‐group, fersmite, monazite, and aeschynite‐group minerals, as well as the compositional characteristics of monazite, indicate the important role of hydrothermal metasomatism during Nb–REE mineralization. The compositional characteristics of Bt‐2 indicate relatively high F and Cl fugacities in the hydrothermal fluid. Bt‐2 and Bt‐3 both have higher Nb2O5 content than Bt‐1, indicating a higher Nb content in the fluid. The source of fluidic Nb likely derived from the metasomatism of magmatic rutile. The REE content decreased from Ap‐1 to Ap‐2, possibly due to a dissolution–reprecipitation process. The compositional changes from Bt‐1 to Bt‐3 and Ap‐1 to Ap‐2 also revealed a decrease in temperature, increase in oxygen fugacity, and increase in Ca content from the magmatic to the hydrothermal system. We speculate that rutile and apatite may have originally formed from an Nb–REE‐rich alkaline‐silicate melt derived from the metasomatized mantle, which led to the initial Nb–REE enrichment. Subsequent hydrothermal alteration by hydrothermal fluids rich in F and Cl, accompanied by changes in the above physical and chemical conditions and fluid composition, caused a relatively limited and localized remobilization of Nb–REE into the fractures and vesicles in the trachyte.

Early mesozoic alkaline magmatism of the western framing of the Mongol-Okhotsk belt: age and structural position

A zonal igneous area appeared at the western end of the Mongol-Okhotsk belt in the early Mesozoic. Its central part forms a giant Khentey-Dauria batholith, which from the north and west is framed by rift-like structures with bimodal and alkaline granite magmatism. The geochronological studies of the peralkaline granites of the Choyr and Gal-Shara massifs were carried out. These massifs belong to the North Gobi (southern) border of the batholith. The age of the first was 215 million years, the age of the second was 213 million years. It is shown that associations involving alkaline igneous rocks are fairly well developed in the North Gobi zone. They are controlled by faults and grabens of the northeast strike. Thus, it was established that the formation of the zonal magmatic area was characterized by a specific mode. In its central part, which corresponds to the zone of the Mongol-Okhotsk suture, anatexis and batholite formation processes took place, and the periphery was involved in the processes of rifting. The data obtained indicate the closure of the western part of the Mongol-Okhotsk trough before the formation of the zonal magmatic area. The structure of the magmatic area was determined by the mechanisms of the plume-lithospheric interaction in the region characterized by a collision suture (anatectic melting zone) and its less tektonic tense framing (rifting zones).

Early Mesozoic Alkaline Magmatism in the Western Framing of the Mongol–Okhotsk Belt: Age and Structural Position

A zonal igneous areal appeared at the western end of the Mongol–Okhotsk Belt in the Early Mesozoic. Its central part is comprised of the Khentei–Daurian giant batholith, which is framed on its north and west by riftlike structures with manifestations of bimodal and alkaline granite magmatism. Geochronological studies of the Choyr and Gal-Shara massifs of peralkaline granites, belonging to the North Gobi (southern) border of the batholith, are carried out. The ages of the former and latter are 215 and 213 Ma, respectively. It is shown that associations involving alkaline igneous rocks are fairly well developed in the North Gobi zone and controlled by NE-trending faults and grabens. Thus, it is established that the zonal magmatic area was formed under a specific regime. In its central part, which corresponds to the zone of the Mongol–Okhotsk suture, anatexis and batholith-formation processes took place, while the periphery was involved in rifting. The data obtained indicate the closure of the western part of the Mongol–Okhotsk trough before the formation of the zonal magmatic areal. The structure of the magmatic areal was determined by the mechanisms of the plume–lithosphere interaction between the collisional suture (anatectic melting zone) and its less tectonically strained framing (rifting zones).

REE concentration processes in ion adsorption deposits: Evidence from the Ambohimirahavavy alkaline complex in Madagascar

Ion adsorption deposits, in which the rare earth elements (REE) occur adsorbed onto clay mineral surfaces, currently provide the world’s dominant supply of heavy REE (Gd-Lu). Concentration of REE within ion adsorption deposits has been proposed to be a dominantly supergene process, where easily degradable REE-minerals (e.g. REE-fluorcarbonates) break down and release REE that are then adsorbed onto clay mineral surfaces in the weathered material. Here we present data from the Cenozoic Ambohimirahavavy alkaline complex in Madagascar, with the aim of further constraining controls on the formation and HREE enrichment processes in ion adsorption deposits.The laterite weathering profiles described here are developed on alkaline igneous rocks, including both SiO2-undersaturated and oversaturated lithologies. The latter group includes REE mineralised peralkaline granitic pegmatites and granitic dykelets. The weathering mineralogy includes gibbsite, clay minerals and minor Fe and Mn oxyhydroxides. X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy show that the clay fraction in all sites is dominated by kaolinite and halloysite (7 Å and 10 Å). Extraction with ammonium sulfate (0.5 M (NH4)2SO4, pH = 4; removes weakly adsorbed metals retained on the solid surface and dissolves carbonates) indicates that, in the different profiles and along the same profile, the leachable REE content is heterogeneous, ranging from 5 to 2300 mg/kg total REE, with 1 to 32% heavy REE. Leaching with magnesium chloride (0.5 M MgCl2, pH = 6; removes only weakly adsorbed REE) releases similar total REE concentrations, suggesting that most of the leachable REE are adsorbed onto mineral surfaces. In most of the laterite profiles, the amount of leachable REE continuously increases with depth up to the saprock. Recovery rates depend on the REE atomic number, generally decreasing from La to Lu except for Ce which is invariably low.In the Ambohimirahavavy complex, the nature of the protolith is the main factor controlling the amount of easily leachable REE in the laterite weathering profile. Hydrology and topography are secondary factors. The most favourable protoliths include SiO2-undersaturated volcanic lithologies and altered mudstone with granitic dykelets. The main primary REE minerals include agpaitic minerals (eudialyte) and allanite-(Ce). Locally in granitic pegmatite dykes, autometasomatism by late magmatic fluids inhibits formation of ion adsorption ore by transforming easily weathered agpaitic minerals into unweatherable zircon.

Kaolinite Occurrence of Kachchh, Gujarat: A Product from Rhyolitic Tuff by Hydrothermal Alteration

ABSTRACT Kaolinite associated with Mesozoic sediments of Kachchh and alkaline igneous rocks are not well studied in view of its genesis. The petrography, EPMA and DTA studies support that the studied kaolinite samples formed by mature transformation from rhyolitic tuff by hydrothermal alteration in epithermal condition. Such postulation indicates that there was intermittent acid volcanic episode along with alkaline basic igneous magmatism in the Cretaceous of Kachchh basin, western part of India.

Exhalative deposits in eocene volcano-sedimentary rocks in the middle part of the Urumieh-Dokhtar magmatic belt: Detailed evidence from nabar deposit, west of Kashan, Urumieh – Dokhtar Magmatic Belt

Meso-Cenozoic magmatic belt of Urumieh–Dokhtar resulted from subduction of Neothetys oceanic crust beneath the Central Iran Block with Gondwanic signature is dominated by calc-alkaline to alkaline igneous rocks. The magmatic rocks has mainly occurred in submarine environments as volcanic-volcanoclastics with interlayers of sedimentary rocks in the Eocene, while it has occurred as intrusive and subvolcanics in the Neogene. In the Nabar area volcano-sedimentary rocks of Eocene have been covered unconformably by Oligo-Miocene sedimentary rocks (Qom Formation). The Eocene and Oligo-Miocene sequences are intruded by Middle-Upper Miocene intrusive and subvolcanic bodies. Igneous rocks of Eocene and Middle-Upper Miocene are of I-type and calc-alkaline belonging to arc and post-collisional setting of continental margin, respectively. The mineralization consists of pyrrhotite, pyrite, minor chalcopyrite and sphalerite, mainly hosted by Eocene volcanoclastics and particularly by the contact metamorphic halos of Qom formation. Irregular veinlets (stringer zone) in the lower part change to massive lenses upward which conformable with Eocene enclosing rocks, and have sharp contact with overlying Qom formation. Low grad ores with irregular shape (patches, veinlets, cavity and fracture filling) which are resulted from remobilization of previous mineralization, occurred within the contact metamorphic halos of Middle-Upper Miocene intrusions. According to geochemical analysis and mineralogical studies, iron, copper, gold, silver, arsenic, lead and zinc are enriched in the ore zone. Two types of fluid inclusion (L-V and L-VS) were distinguished in quartz veinlets. The homogenization temperature and salinity of fluid inclusions vary from 121 °C – 537 °C and 9–45 wt% NaCl equivalent, respectively. These data indicating the mixing of magmatic water with meteoric water in the later stage of mineralization. The δ34S values of pyrite and pyrrhotite which varies from 10.5 to 11.6 wt% compatible with massive sulfide and skarn type deposits. Field observations, mineralogical, geochemical, fluid inclusion and isotopic data suggest that, the Nabar deposit is probably a Kuroko type massive sulfide deposit which has been partly changed to skarn during penetration of Middle-Upper Miocene subvolcanic intrusions. The Kuroko type barite deposit of Dorreh and exhalative Mn deposit of Venarch and Shahrestanak were formed at the same time, within the Eocene volcanoclastic sequences.

Carbonatites as recorders of mantle-derived magmatism and subsequent tectonic events: An example of the Gifford Creek Carbonatite Complex, Western Australia

The Gifford Creek Carbonatite Complex (GCCC), Western Australia contains a diverse suite of alkaline igneous rocks, including magnesiocarbonatites, ferrocarbonatites, phoscorites, fenites, magmatic-hydrothermal peralkaline dykes, and ironstones. This study employs U-Pb, Sm-Nd, and Lu-Hf radiogenic isotope techniques on monazite – (Ce), fluorapatite, and zircon to determine the origin, age, and history of the GCCC.Zircon crystals found in glimmerite alteration selvages adjacent to ferrocarbonatites exhibit pyramidal crystal morphologies, εHf values of −1.8 to −4.3, high Th/U, and variable Zr/Hf, all of which are indicative of carbonatitic zircon sourced from an enriched mantle component. Uranium-Pb dating of these zircons returned a definitive magmatic age of ~1370 Ma for the GCCC. Monazite hosted in the ferrocarbonatites, phoscorites, and fenite alteration assemblages yielded variable U-Pb ages ranging from ca. 1250 Ma to 815 Ma. Neodymium isotope isochrons determined from coexisting monazite and apatite gave ages between ca. 1310 Ma to ca. 1190 Ma, but all with similar initial 143Nd/144Nd values of 0.51078–0.51087.The 1370 Ma age of the GCCC does not correspond to any known mantle plume activity, but does broadly correlate with the separation of the North China Craton from the West Australian Craton as part of the greater breakup of Nuna. The monazite and apatite εNd data illustrate that the multiple younger U-Pb monazite and Nd isotope isochron ages are not recording multiple magmatic intrusions into the complex, but rather represent partial recrystallisation/resetting of REE-bearing minerals during the protracted tectonic history of the Western Australia Craton from ~1300 Ma to 815 Ma and its involvement in the breakup of Nuna and assembly and disassembly of Rodinia.The age variability in the U-Pb and the Sm-Nd isotope systems in monazite and apatite reveal that tectonically-induced hydrothermalism can contribute to the isotopic resetting of phosphate minerals. This age resetting, if properly identified, can be used as a thorough geochronological record of tectonism affecting alkaline igneous complexes after initial magmatic emplacement.

40Ar/39Ar Geochronology of the Malyy (Little) Murun Massif, Aldan Shield of the Siberian Craton: A Simple Story for an Intricate Igneous Complex

The Malyy (Little) Murun massif of the Aldan Shield of the Siberian Craton has long been a kind of Siberian Mecca for geologists. It has attracted thousands of geologists, prospectors, and mineral collectors despite its remote location. It is famous for a dozen new and rare minerals, including the gemstones charoite and dianite (the latter is the market name for strontian potassicrichrerite), as well as for a range of uncommon alkaline igneous rocks. Despite this, the age of the Malyy Murun igneous complex and associated metasomatic and hydrothermal mineral associations has remained poorly constrained until now. In this paper, we provide extensive 40Ar/39Ar geochronological data to reveal its age and temporal history. It appears that, although unique in terms of rocks and constituent minerals, the Malyy Murun is just one of multiple alkaline massifs and lavas emplaced in the Early Cretaceous (~137–128 Ma) within a framework of the extensional setting of the Aldan Shield and nearby Transbaikalian region. The extension took place 40–60 million years after the supposed closure of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Ocean and orogenic peak in the Early–Middle Jurassic.

Rare Earth Elements in Planetary Crusts: Insights from Chemically Evolved Igneous Suites on Earth and the Moon

The abundance of the rare earth elements (REEs) in Earth’s crust has become the intense focus of study in recent years due to the increasing societal demand for REEs, their increasing utilization in modern-day technology, and the geopolitics associated with their global distribution. Within the context of chemically evolved igneous suites, 122 REE deposits have been identified as being associated with intrusive dike, granitic pegmatites, carbonatites, and alkaline igneous rocks, including A-type granites and undersaturated rocks. These REE resource minerals are not unlimited and with a 5–10% growth in global demand for REEs per annum, consideration of other potential REE sources and their geological and chemical associations is warranted. The Earth’s moon is a planetary object that underwent silicate-metal differentiation early during its history. Following ~99% solidification of a primordial lunar magma ocean, residual liquids were enriched in potassium, REE, and phosphorus (KREEP). While this reservoir has not been directly sampled, its chemical signature has been identified in several lunar lithologies and the Procellarum KREEP Terrane (PKT) on the lunar nearside has an estimated volume of KREEP-rich lithologies at depth of 2.2 × 108 km3. This reservoir therefore offers a prospective location for future lunar REE exploration. Within the context of chemically evolved lithologies, lunar granites are rare with only 22 samples currently classified as granitic. However, these extraterrestrial granites exhibit chemical affinities to terrestrial A-type granites. On Earth, these anorogenic magmatic systems are hosts to U-Th-REE-ore deposits and while to date only U-Th regions of enrichment on the lunar surface have been identified, future exploration of the lunar surface and interior may yet reveal U-Th-REE regions associated with the distribution of these chemically distinct, evolved lithologies.

Unconformity-Related Rare Earth Element Deposits: A Regional-Scale Hydrothermal Mineralization Type of Northern Australia

Rare earth element (REE) orebodies are typically associated with alkaline igneous rocks or develop as placer or laterite deposits. Here, we describe an economically important heavy (H)REE mineralization type that is entirely hydrothermal in origin with no demonstrable links to magmatism. The mineralization occurs as numerous xenotime-rich vein and breccia orebodies across a large area of northern Australia but particularly close to a regional unconformity between Archean metasedimentary rocks of the Browns Range Metamorphics and overlying Proterozoic sandstones of the Birrindudu Group. The deposits formed at 1.65 to 1.61 Ga along steeply dipping faults; there is no known local igneous activity at this time. Depletion of HREEs in the Browns Range Metamorphics, together with the similar nonradiogenic Nd isotope composition of the orebodies and the Browns Range Metamorphics, indicates that ore metals were leached directly from the Browns Range metasedimentary rocks. We propose an ore genesis model that involves fluid leaching HREEs from the Browns Range Metamorphics and subsequently mixing with P-bearing acidic fluid from the overlying sandstones in fault zones near the unconformity. The union of P and HREEs via fluid mixing in a low-Ca environment triggered extensive xenotime precipitation. This mineralization is unlike that of any other class of REE ore deposit but has a similar setting to unconformity-related U deposits of Australia and Canada, so we assign it the label “unconformity-related REE.” Further discoveries of this REE mineralization type are expected near regional unconformities within Proterozoic intracontinental sedimentary basins across the globe.

Alkaline magmas in zones of continental convergence: The Tezhsar volcano-intrusive ring complex, Armenia

Alkaline igneous rocks are relatively rare in settings of tectonic convergence and little is known about their petrogenesis in these settings. This study aims to contribute to a better understanding of the formation of alkaline igneous rocks by an investigation of the Tezhsar volcano-intrusive alkaline ring complex (TAC) in the Armenian Lesser Caucasus, which is located between the converging Eurasian and Arabian plates. We present new petrological, geochemical and SrNd isotope data for the TAC to constrain magma genesis and magma source characteristics. Moreover, we provide a new 40Ar/39Ar age of 41.0 ± 0.5 Ma on amphibole from a nepheline syenite that is integrated into the regional context of ongoing regional convergence and widespread magmatism.The TAC is spatially concentric and measures ~10 km in diameter representing the relatively shallow plumbing system of a major stratovolcano juxtaposed by ring faulting with its extrusive products. The plutonic units comprise syenites and nepheline syenites, whereas the extrusive units are dominated by trachytic-phonolitic rocks. The characteristic feature of the TAC is the development of pseudomorphs after leucite in all types of the volcanic, subvolcanic and intrusive alkaline rocks.Whole-rock major element data show a metaluminous (Alkalinity Index = 0–0.1), alkalic and silica-undersaturated (Feldspathoid Silica-Saturation Index <0) character of the TAC. The general trace element enrichment and strong fractionation of REEs (LaN/YbN up to 70) indicate a relatively enriched magma source and small degrees of partial melting. All TAC rocks show a negative NbTa anomalies typical of subduction zone settings. The initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.704–0.705) and positive εNd values (+3 to +5) indicate an isotopically depleted upper mantle and lack of significant crustal influence, which in turn suggests the TAC magma has formed via differentiation from lithospheric mantle melts.Regionally, the age of ~41 Ma places the TAC amid a Lesser Caucasian Eocene period of dominantly calc-alkaline magmatism. The TAC's arc-like geochemical signatures are interpreted to result from prior subduction of the Tethyan slab beneath the Eurasian continental margin. The alkaline character, distinct from regional trends, is attributed to Neotethyan slab rollback causing extension and inducing small degrees of decompression melting of metasomatised lithospheric mantle.