Algal Infections Research Articles

Study of histopathology on Arbacia lixula (Arbaciidae: Arbacioida) and Paracentrotus lividus (Parachinidae: Camarodonta) with bald sea urchin disease symptoms in Gran Canaria Island, Spain

Introduction: Sea urchin diseases have been documented in several locations worldwide, with reported occurrences of bacterial, protozoan, fungal, and algal infections.
 Objective: This study aimed to investigate pathogen agents in populations of Arbacia lixula and Paracentrotus lividus along the coast of Gran Canaria Island (Central-East Atlantic, Spain).
 Methods: Sampling was conducted at San Cristobal beach, on the Northeast side of the island, where sea urchins were manually collected from depths of 1-3 m during June, July, and October 2022. Swab samples were taken from the external and internal areas of the lesions and cultured on various media plates.
 Results: Eight different pathogen agents, including bacteria and fungi, were identified, with Vibrio alginolyticus being the most frequently observed bacteria in all diseased sea urchin samples. Additionally, ciliated protozoans were found within the tests, potentially acting as opportunistic parasites.
 Conclusions: This research provides a unique perspective on bald sea urchin disease by identifying a significant number of associated pathogens, including Candida, previously unreported in diseased organisms. Furthermore, the study highlights the presence of an inflammatory response in tissues with bacterial colonies, offering crucial insights into understanding this sea urchin disease.

Early detection of algal infection using direct real-time chemical ionization mass spectrometry

Early detection of algal infection using direct real-time chemical ionization mass spectrometry Robert S. Pomeroy, Teaching Professor at UC San Diego, guides us through the early detection of algal infections using direct real-time chemical ionization mass spectrometry. Petroleum, from the Latin “rock oil,” has transformed our lives. It has changed how we live, work, and play. Petroleum is, however, nothing more than ancient algae. The transformation of biomass to hydrocarbons results from being subjected to heat and pressure over millions of years. Algae accumulate oils that, when extracted, can be converted into renewable fuels such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. In 1978, the U.S. Department of Energy launched the Aquatic Species Program to investigate energy production using algae. (1) The establishment of this program coincided with the rapidly rising fuel cost due to the Oil Embargo in 1973 and led to the creation of the U.S. Department of Energy.

Pathology of Infectious Diseases

Part 1 General principles: changing spectrum of human infectious diseases host-parasite interplay role of pathology in diagnosis of infections types of tissue responses to infection microscopic detection of pathogenic organisms. Part 2 Viral infections: viral pathogenesis viral diseases of the digestive system viral skin rashes systemic and hematopoietic viral disorders adult immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) arboviral and zoonotic viral fevers viral encephalitis and myelitis viral myocarditis viral skin growths. Part 3 Chlamydial infections: chlamydial pathogenesis chlamydial diseases. Part 4 Rickettsial infections: rickettsial pathogenesis rickettsial diseases. Part 5 Mycoplasma infections: mycoplasma pathogenesis diseases caused by mycoplasmas. Part 6 Bacterial infections: bacterial pathogenesis diseases caused by pyogenic cocci diseases caused by common gram-negative bacteria bacterial diseases of childhood enteric bacterial diseases clostridial diseases zoonotic bacterial diseases rare gram-negative infections treponemal diseases mycobacterial diseases diseases caused by streptomycetales. Part 7 Fungal and algal infections: fungal pathogenesis superficial mycoses opportunistic mycoses endemic fungal diseases diseases caused by algae (protothecosis). Part 8 Protozoal infections: protozoal pathogenesis diseases caused by luminal protozoa diseases caused by bloodstream protozoa diseases caused by intracellular protozoa. Part 9 Helminthic infections: helminthic pathogenesis diseases caused by tissue nematodes filarial diseases diseases caused by cestodes diseases caused by trematodes. Part 10 Patients at special risk of infection: general risk categories residents and travellers in endemic areas pregnant women and neonates infants and elderly persons the poor, homeless, the addicted patients genetically predisposed immunosuppressed and leukopenic patients AIDS patients. Epilogue: the sience and art of infectious disease medicine.

Intestinal Protothecosis in a Young Bengal Cat

Background: Intestinal protothecosis is an uncommon and insidious mycotic disease. Only one human case and a few rare cases in dogs have been reported. To the authors’ knowledge, intestinal protothecosis has never been reported in cats. Case description: This paper describes a case of intestinal protothecosis in a nine-month-old male, Bengal cat. The cat presented because of onset of haemorrhagic diarrhoea. Investigations allowed diagnosis of intestinal protothecosis, confirmed by PCR test on faeces. Treatment with itraconazole did not improve the clinical signs. Treatment with nystatin was prescribed and caused improvement in the clinical signs and decreased number of pathogens seen on faecal cytology. PCR on faecal samples was negative two months after treatment, with complete resolution of symptoms. Conclusion: Infection with Prototheca should be part of the list of differential diagnoses for diarrhoea in cats. nystatin was effective in treating the infection in this case; this drug should be considered as a first-line treatment in cats as well as in dogs, in which protothecosis appears to have a poor prognosis. Although protothecosis is not considered a zoonotic disease, cases of algal infections in companion animals might be considered indicators of environmental risks for humans.

Characterization of the complete mitochondrial genome and phylogenetic analysis of Prototheca stagnorum (chlorellales: Chlorellaceae)

Prototheca stagnorum belongs to the genus Prototheca that are achloroplyllous algae with phylogenetic affinities to Chlorella sp. Microalgae of the genus Prototheca spp are associated with rare algal infections of invertebrates termed protothecosis. In this study, the complete nucleotide sequence of the circular mitochondrial (mt) DNA of the chlorophyte alga P. stagnorum has been determined (80,023 base-pairs, A + T content 13.77%). The genes identified encode three subunits of the cytochrome oxidase and apocytochrome b, eight subunits of the NADH dehydrogenase complex (nad1-7, nad4L), four ATPase subunits (atp1, atp4, atp6, atp8), three ribosomal RNAs (5 S (rrn5), small subunit (srn) and large subunit (lrn) RNA), 27 tRNAs, two succinate dehydrogenase and 10 ribosome proteins. The complete mitochondrial genome sequence will provide new molecular biology information to further understand the genetic diversity of the Prototheca sp. and to eliminate this population.

Label-Free Quantitative Proteomic Analysis of Harmless and Pathogenic Strains of Infectious Microalgae, Prototheca spp.

Microalgae of the genus Prototheca (P.) spp are associated with rare algal infections of invertebrates termed protothecosis. Among the seven generally accepted species, P. zopfii genotype 2 (GT2) is associated with a severe form of bovine mastitis while P. blaschkeae causes the mild and sub-clinical form of mastitis. The reason behind the infectious nature of P. zopfii GT2, while genotype 1 (GT1) remains non-infectious, is not known. Therefore, in the present study we investigated the protein expression level difference between the genotypes of P. zopfii and P. blaschkeae. Cells were cultured to the mid-exponential phase, harvested, and processed for LC-MS analysis. Peptide data was acquired on an LTQ Orbitrap Velos, raw spectra were quantitatively analyzed with MaxQuant software and matching with the reference database of Chlorella variabilis and Auxenochlorella protothecoides resulted in the identification of 226 proteins. Comparison of an environmental strain with infectious strains resulted in the identification of 51 differentially expressed proteins related to carbohydrate metabolism, energy production and protein translation. The expression level of Hsp70 proteins and their role in the infectious process is worth further investigation. All mass spectrometry data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD005305.

Glutathione may have implications in the design of 3-bromopyruvate treatment protocols for both fungal and algal infections as well as multiple myeloma.

In different fungal and algal species, the intracellular concentration of reduced glutathione (GSH) correlates closely with their susceptibility to killing by the small molecule alkylating agent 3-bromopyruvate (3BP). Additionally, in the case of Cryptococcus neoformans cells 3BP exhibits a synergistic effect with buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), a known GSH depletion agent. This effect was observed when 3BP and BSO were used together at concentrations respectively of 4-5 and almost 8 times lower than their Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC). Finally, at different concentrations of 3BP (equal to the half-MIC, MIC and double-MIC in a case of fungi, 1 mM and 2.5 mM for microalgae and 25, 50, 100 μM for human multiple myeloma (MM) cells), a significant decrease in GSH concentration is observed inside microorganisms as well as tumor cells. In contrast to the GSH concentration decrease, the presence of 3BP at concentrations corresponding to sub-MIC values or half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) clearly results in increasing the expression of genes encoding enzymes involved in the synthesis of GSH in Cryptococcus neoformans and MM cells. Moreover, as shown for the first time in the MM cell model, the drastic decrease in the ATP level and GSH concentration and the increase in the amount of ROS caused by 3BP ultimately results in cell death.

Impact on Water Quality of Nandoni Water Reservoir Downstream of Municipal Sewage Plants in Vhembe District, South Africa

The deterioration of water quality in our freshwater sources is on the increase worldwide and, in South Africa, mostly due to the discharge of municipal sewage effluent. Here we report on the use of principal component analysis, coupled with factor and cluster analysis, to study the similarities and differences between upstream and downstream sampling sites that are downstream of municipal sewage plants. The contribution of climatic variables, air temperature, humidity, and rainfall were also evaluated with respect to variations in water quality at the sampling sites. The physicochemical and microbial values were higher than the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) and World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. The cluster analysis showed the presence of two clusters for each of the Mvudi, Dzindi, and Luvuvhu Rivers and Nandoni reservoir sampling sites. The principal component analysis (PCA) accounted for 40% of the water quality variation and was associated strongly with pH, electrical conductivity, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bromide, nitrate, and total coliform, and negatively with rainfall, which represented Mvudi downstream and was attributed to the Thohoyandou sewage plant. The PCA accounted for 54% of the variation and was associated strongly with electrical conductivity, sulfate; total dissolved solids, fluoride, turbidity, nitrate, manganese, alkalinity, magnesium, and total coliform represented Dzindi downstream, with inflows from the Vuwani sewage plant and agriculture. The PCA accounted for 30% of the variation and was associated strongly with total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, magnesium, fluoride, nitrate, sulfate, total coliform average air temperature, and total rainfall, and negatively associated with manganese and bromide represented Luvuvhu upstream and was associated with commercial agriculture. The PCA accounted for 21% of the variation and was associated strongly with turbidity, alkalinity, magnesium, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, and strongly negatively associated with rainfall, which represented Luvuvhu downstream, associated with inflows from Vuwani oxidation ponds, Elim and Waterval sewage plants, and agriculture. The PCA accounted for 14% of the variation and was moderately associated with rainfall and weakly associated with chloride and bromide and negatively associated with nitrate, which represented the natural Nandoni reservoir system. The continued discharge of effluent may render the raw water supply unsuitable for human consumption and lead to eutrophication due to nitrate enrichment and proliferation of harmful algal blooms and schistomiasis infections in the long term.

Biofilm formation by pathogenic Prototheca algae.

Prototheca microalgae are the only plants known to cause infections in humans and animals. The mechanisms of Prototheca infections are poorly understood, and no good treatments are available. Biofilms-surface-attached, three-dimensional microbial communities contributing to chronic infections-are formed by many pathogenic bacteria and fungi, but it is not known if Prototheca algae also have this ability. This study shows that various Prototheca species form biofilms composed of surface-attached cells in all growth phases, linked together by matrix containing DNA and polysaccharides. Biofilm formation was modulated by the presence of host plasma or milk. Compared to planktonic cells, Prototheca biofilms caused decreased release of IL-6 by mononuclear immune cells and responded differently to treatment with antimicrobials. Prototheca biofilms possibly contribute to chronic and hard-to-treat character of those algal infections. Prototheca algae are the only existing pathogenic plants. Almost nothing is known about mechanisms of Prototheca infections. This study identifies that, similar to pathogenic bacteria and fungi, Prototheca algae can form biofilms. These biofilms induce reduced immune cell activation relative to planktonic cells, and are also less susceptible to antimicrobials. Biofilm formation by Prototheca could be the first in vitro correlate of pathogenicity, opening a new research field for this pathogen.

Chlorella Infection in a Sheep in Mexico and Minireview of Published Reports from Humans and Domestic Animals

Algal infections are rare in humans and domestic animals. Prototheca spp. and Chlorella spp. are among the most commonly reported. Herein, we present a brief review on Chlorella spp. infections and related pathologies and discuss this information including a natural case in a sheep in Mexico with a disseminated form of the disease.

Development and Evaluation of an Enzyme‐Linked Immunosorbent Assay for the Serodiagnosis of Pythiosis in Dogs

Pythiosis (caused by the aquatic oomycete Pythium insidiosum) is a devastating and often fatal cause of either severe transmural gastroenteritis or locally invasive subcutaneous disease in dogs living in the southeastern United States. Although early diagnosis is essential for successful treatment, tools available for this task are limited. Therefore, we developed and evaluated an enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of anti‐P insidiosum antibodies in canine serum. A soluble mycelial extract of P insidiosum was utilized as antigen in the ELISA, which was used to evaluate serum from 43 dogs with pythiosis, 8 dogs with lagenidiosis (another canine oomycosis), 16 dogs with nonoomycotic fungal or algal infections, 22 dogs with nonfungal gastrointestinal or skin disease, and 55 healthy dogs. Results were expressed as percent positivity (PP) relative to a strong positive control serum run on each plate. Medians and ranges for each of the 5 groups were as follows: pythiosis (81.7%, 50.6–98.5%), lagenidiosis (17.3%, 11.3–29.2%), other fungal or algal infections (8.2%, 4.7–15.4%), nonfungal gastrointestinal or skin disease (6.2%, 3.9–20.7%), and healthy dogs (6.7%, 3.0–15.2%). When using a cutoff value of 40% PP, the sensitivity and specificity of the ELISA both were 100%. In addition, ELISA values measured after successful surgical therapy in 2 dogs showed a decrease of anti‐P insidiosum antibody concentrations into the normal range as early as 2 months after treatment. We conclude that the ELISA is a sensitive and specific test for the diagnosis of canine pythiosis, and may be a useful tool for monitoring response to medical or surgical therapy.

Hifalomicose em Mustelus schmitti (Springer) (Chondrichthyes, Triakidae)

Both fungai and algal infections have been reported in elasmobranchs. This study describes the first record of hyphalomycosis infection in Mustelus schmitii (Springer, 1940). The data was obtained through the examination of one animal in captivity and ninety five in their natural environment. Was also detected four cases of Fusarium solani infection. The impact of these diseases on the wild population is unknown.

A Trematode (Phagicola sp.)-induced Mesenteric Lymphadenitis and Enteritis in Raccoons (Procyon lotor)

1 Anonymous: Outbreaks of diarrheal illness associated with cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)-like bodies-Chicago and Nepal, 1989 and 1990. Mortal Morbid Weekly Rep 40:325-327, I99 1 2 Chandler FW, Kaplan W, Ajello A: Protothecosis and infections caused by morphologically similar green algae. In: A Colour Atlas and Textbook of the Histopathology of Mycotic Disease, pp. 96-1 00. Wolfe Medical, London, England, 1980 3 Chandler FW, Kaplan W, Callaway CS: Differentiation between Prototheca and morphologically similar green algae in tissue. Arch Pathol Lab Med 102:353-356, 1978 4 Cordy DR: Chlorellosis in a lamb. Vet Pathol 10: 171176, 1973 5 Ivanov BG, Skalinskii EI: [Pathological changes in paratuberculosis of camels]. Tr Vses Inst Eksp Vet 20: 186206, 1957 6 Jones JW, McFadden HW, Chandler FW, Kaplan W, Connor DH: Green algal infections in a human. Am J Clin Pathol 80:102-107, 1983 7 Kaplan W, Chandler FW, Choudary C, Ramachandran PK: Disseminated unicellular green algal infection in two sheep in India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32:405-411, 1983 8 Rogers RJ, Connole MD, Norton J, Thomas A, Ladds PW: Lymphadenitis ofcattle due to infection with green algae. J Comp Pathol90: 1-9, 1980 9 Sudman MS, Kaplan W: Identification of the Prototheca species by immunofluorescence. Appl Microbiol2598 1990, 1973 10 Zakia AM, Osheik AA, Halima MO: Ovine chlorellosis in the Sudan. Vet Rec 125:625-626, 1989

Review of animal mycoses in Australia

This review covers the available literature on the mycoses of animals in Australia since the last review published in 1967. Of the cutaneous infections, dermatophytoses have been recorded in a wide range of animals: cattle, horses, goats, pigs, sheep, cats, dogs, mice, guinea-pigs, rabbits, a lion, kangaroos, a camel, koalas and wallabies. These infections were caused by several species and varieties of the genera, Microsporum and Trichophyton. Eight agents of ringworms have been recorded in the horse. Two subcutaneous mycoses, phaeohyphomycosis and sporotrichosis have been reported. Phaeohyphomycosis is becoming more common but sporotrichosis is rare having been recorded only once in a cat. The following systemic mycoses have been recorded: adiaspiromycosis, aspergillosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis, dactylariosis, fusariomycosis, histoplasmosis, miscellaneous mycoses, mycotic abortion and related conditions, zygomycosis, pythiosis, protothecosis and green algal infections. Cryptococcosis has affected 11 different animal species. Mycotic abortion is a serious disease in Victoria. Pythiosis of horses has been extensively studied in northern Australia.

DISEASES OF WILD, CAPTIVE AND CULTURED SCALLOPS

ABSTRACTMass mortalities of wild, captive and cultured scallops have been frequently reported. The cailses of such mortalities and population fluctuations have not been established. A review of specific diseases of scallops is presented and the following newly reported diseases are discussed. Odostomia spp. and Polydora spp. are important predators and shell inhabitants of captive and cultured scallops. Rickettsial infections in the bay scallop are reported. Bacterial infections, especially vibriosis, are common in cultured scallop larvae. Protozoan infections and fouling are common and may be pathogenic. These include algal infections of mantle tissue, environmental dinoflagellate blooms (e.g., Prorocentrum spp.), renal coccidia, Hexamita spp., trichodina‐like organisms, and others. A variety of helminth parasites, especially in adductor muscle tissues, are of public health importance. Fouling organisms are common in captive and cultured populations. Sabellaria vulgaris, a polychaete, is an important lethal fouling agent for wild bay scallops.Motile scallops differ from many other bivalves by their anatomical and physiological predisposition to traumatic injuries, fouling and predation.Specific diseases can be most readily observed in captive and cultured populations, increasing our understanding of diseases of wild stock and young larval and juvenile stages.

Disseminated unicellular green algal infection in two sheep in India.

Unicellular green algae infected and disseminated in two adult Nellore brown rams in India. At necropsy multiple green lesions were observed in the lungs, liver and kidneys of both sheep. Histological examination revealed necrotizing granulomas that contained numerous spheroidal to elliptical organisms ranging from 5-20 micrometers in diameter. These organisms occurred in several reproductive stages: small (5-9 micrometers) single, undifferentiated cells; intermediate (9-15 micrometers) cells undergoing nuclear and cytoplasmic cleavage; and large, mature, endosporulating cells containing two to six or more endospores. In addition, occasional large (20-35 micrometers), round thick-walled forms were among the typical cells. The cytoplasm of the algal cells contained numerous, large, irregularly-shaped and densely packed granules of varying sizes, which were strongly stained by the Gridley fungus, periodic acid-Schiff, and Gomori methenamine silver procedures. Electron microscopic studies revealed chloroplasts in the cytoplasm of these organisms. The chloroplasts consisted of smoothly contoured electron-lucent or electron-dense granules, 0.5 to 3.0 micrometers in diameter, that were either surrounded by or contiguous to two or more tightly appressed membranes or multidisc bands. Some of the alternating membranes appeared to be spirally twisted or associated with several cytoplasmic granules in one plane of section. This is the first record of algal infections in India.

Coccidioidomycosis

This publication is a welcome addition to the well-known Color Atlas Series printed by the Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc. The three authors, experts in histopathology and medical mycology at the Center for Disease Control, have collaborated and combined their talents to give a comprehensive Atlas on the importance of histopathology in the diagnoses of fungal, actinomycotic and algal infections found in man and animals. Written to increase the awareness of pathologists and their role in the diagnoses of mycotic diseases, the Atlas removes the mystery surrounding the identification of fungal agents by histopathological methods. The use of new staining techniques and immunofluorescence are definitive tools available today and this work shows how they can be used for diagnosis in the field of medical mycology. The impressive looking hard-bound book is a needed reference for the library of anyone interested in the mycoses.

Algal infections of fish tissue: a recent record and review

Abstract. Algal infections on five carp are described and related to the known literature concerning algal‐fish associations.