Alectoris Graeca Chukar Research Articles

Thyroidectomy and the termination of juvenile refractoriness in the red-legged partridge ( Alectoris graeca chukar)

The role of thyroid hormones in the maintenance of juvenile refractoriness was studied in the red-legged partridge hybrid, Alectoris graeca chukar. Juvenile partridges, maintained on long (20L:4D) daylengths from hatch, were radiothyroidectomized at 6 1 2 weeks of age, and after 2 weeks were either held on long days or transferred to short (8L: 161)) daylengths. Short-day thyroidectomized birds showed no evidence of gonadal growth 18 weeks after thyroidectomy, and neither did euthyroid controls on either short or long daylengths. Thyroidectomized birds held on long daylengths did show significant gonadal growth at this point. Further treatment with low levels of thyroxine (10 μg/bird) led to even greater testicular development in long-day thyroidectomized birds, but had no effect on the gonads of short-day thyroidectomized or euthyroid birds.

Photoperiodic control of puberty in the red-legged partridge ( Alectoris graeca chukar)

The photoperiodic control of puberty in birds was studied using hybrid red-legged partridges ( Alectoris graeca chukar). In the wild partridges first breed at about 10 months of age. Males and females were held from hatch on short (8L: 16D) daylengths and then at 3, 4 1 2 , 6, 7 1 2 , 9, and 12 weeks of age groups were transferred to long daylengths (20L:4D) for 3 weeks to test for the photoperiodic induction of gonadal growth. Control groups were maintained on either the short or long daylengths and killed at 3, 9, and 12 weeks of age. Gonadal growth did not occur in either of the control groups, nor in any of the birds photostimulated prior to 6 weeks of age. However, in birds photostimulated after this point gonadal size was increased in a graded manner, this growth being reflected in the plasma and pituitary levels of luteinizing hormone. Similar long-day responses which increased with age were observed in plasma and pituitary levels of prolactin (PRL). In the control birds there was a steady decline with time in plasma PRL, with no change being seen in pituitary PRL. Hypothalamic gonadotrophin-releasing hormone content did not change in birds maintained on 8L-:161) or 20L:4D and was only elevated by photostimulation in the females. Plasma testosterone remained low in all the males except for those transferred to 20L-:4D at 12 weeks. Testicular testosterone content remained low in control birds but was elevated by photostimulation at 6 and 12 weeks of age. Plasma progesterone levels increased with age in control birds and were only elevated by photostimulation at 3 and 4 1 2 weeks of age. These data show juvenile partridges to be completely unresponsive to photoperiodic stimulation and in a condition very similar if not identical to that seen in adult refreactoriness. As in the adults, this refractoriness is progressively dissipated by exposure to short days so that by 9–12 weeks of age the partridges are able to respond maximally to long-day stimulation.

Leukocyte numbers during the humoral and cell-mediated immune response of Japanese quail after microwave irradiation in ovo

1. 1. Coturnix coturnix japonica eggs were exposed to 2.45-GHz continuous wave microwave radiation at an incident power density of 5mW/cm 2 (SAR = 4mW/g) during the first 12 days of embryogeny. After hatching, leukocyte differential changes were measured in response to an injection with Alectoris graeca chukar red blood cells (CRBC) and in response to a phytohemagglutinin (PHA) injection in irradiated and nonirradiated (sham) quail of both sexes. 2. 2. Microwave irradiation did not affect anti-CRBC hemagglutinin titers, PHA-evoked dermal swelling or leukocyte numbers and percentages. 3. 3. In both the irradiated and sham irradiated males, lymphocyte percentages decreased while heterophil percentages increased after CRBC or PHA injection. 4. 4. In ovo irradiation with microwaves did not alter the time course of either a humoral immune response or a cell-mediated immune response in Japanese quail.

Hematological Response of Immunized and Serially Bled Japanese Quail

Sexually mature female Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) were immunized by an intravenous injection with .5 ml of a 7.5% suspension of Chukar partridge (Alectoris graeca chukar) red blood cells (CRBC). Blood samples were collected either serially from one group of quail or a single time from separate groups of quail at 0 (nonimmunized), 3, 6, and 9 days postimmunization. Total anti-CRBC hemagglutinin titers (HA) were measured by a microhemagglutinin procedure. Selected hematological variables were also measured. Mean HA was not affected by serial blood sampling. Total erythrocyte numbers, percent hematocrit, and hemoglobin levels were depressed in serially bled quail at 3 days postimmunization. Reticulocytosis was found in serially bled quail at 6 days postimmunization.

Termination of photorefractoriness in the chukar partridge (alectoris graeca chukar) by low light intensity.

Adult females were maintained under controlled conditions (22 degrees C, 60% relative humidity and 16 h light/day) within bioclimatic chambers throughout the test. For 6 weeks prior to photostimulation photorefractory birds were exposed to a light intensity of 1, 3, 5 or 7 lux. The intensity was then increased to 50 lux. Control birds were kept in 8L : 16D and changed to 16L : 8D, the light intensity remaining at 50 lux. The time to first egg and the rate of egg production were recorded. A decrease in light intensity alone was able to terminate photorefractoriness in chukar partridge and the threshold light intensity required for a complete termination of refractoriness was less than 1 lux. Light intensities of 1, 3 or 5 lux resulted in a partial termination of refractoriness but 7 lux was completely ineffective in terminating photorefractoriness. The termination of photorefractoriness was therefore not an all-or-nothing response.

The effect of intensity and duration of light on photorefractoriness and subsequent egg production of chukar partridge.

Three photoperiodic experiments on egg production of chukar partridge (Alectoris graeca chukar) were conducted under controlled ‘environmental conditions. In test 1 the photorefractoriness of blind, thyroidectomized and intact chukars to long days (LD16:8) was examined from hatch until 123 weeks of age. Thereafter, the effects of long days of low intensity light (4 lux) on terminating the refractory period were observed. In the second test, the minimum level of light intensity to induce egg laying in chukars was determined at 64 and 103 weeks of age. In addition, the effect of step-wise increases in light intensity on egg production and photorefractoriness was compared to steady levels of light intensity. In the third test, 2 consecutive egg laying cycles were induced in blinded and intact chukars. Again the threshold level of light intensity to induce egg laying was determined. In addition, the effects of larger changes in intensity (lOX) in terminating photorefractoriness were determined. The results indicate the following: 1) neither blinding nor thyroidectomy alters photorefractoriness; 2) either exposure to short daylengths or to low light intensity is necessary to break photorefractoriness before chukars can be photostimulated into egg production by long days; 3) the minimum light intensity for egg production is 2 lu.x; 4) chukars possess extraretinal photoreceptor(s) which respond to changes in both day length and intensity; 5) small changes in light intensity (2-5X) have little effect in terminating photorefractoriness; 6) lox changes in intensity suppress photorefractoriness and allows an increase in both the duration of lay and the number of eggs.

Nucleic Acid and Nucleoprotein Content of Avian Erythrocyte Nuclei

Classical methods for isolation and fractionation of cell nuclei have been improvised with the intent to simplify and increase efficiency of fowl erythrocyte nuclear characterization. A comparative study on the ratios of the major macromolecules (DNA, RNA, and nucleoproteins) of avian erythrocyte nuclei has also been undertaken.Five avian species, Gallus domesticus (chicken), Alectoris graeca chukar (Indian partridge), Coturnix coturnix japonica (quail), Phasianus colchicus torquatus (Ring-necked pheasant) and Meleagris gallopava (Beltsville Small White turkey) were the subjects of this study.Nuclei percentage composition of DNA, RNA, and protein were determined spectrophotometrically. Ratios of these macromolecules were subsequently calculated. DNA to protein to RNA were approximately (0.9–1.0 to 0.2–0.3), respectively. The ratio of DNA to protein does not appear to be species specific. In contrast, DNA to RNA does exhibit species specificity.

Induced Cycles of Egg Production in the Chukar Partridge

REPRODUCTION in most wild passerine and gallinaceous birds is much the same in that most are seasonal layers and produce their young in the spring of the year, when favorable light and temperature conditions prevail. Under domestication, chukars (Alectoris graeca chukar) and pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) can be induced to lay in midwinter, rather than in the spring, provided the birds are preconditioned by short day lengths before being exposed to long daily photoperiods (Funk et al., 1942). Rowan (1929) demonstrated that repeated cycles of gonadal development could be induced in slate-colored juncos (Junco hyemalis) by subjecting these birds to alternating periods of short and long days. His results were substantiated by Wolfson (1954), who reported that multiple cycles of gonadal development, fat deposition, and periods of molt could be induced in juncos and white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys leucophrys) by subjecting these species to alternating periods of short (9L:15D) and long…

Stress Response and Survival Time in Three Wildlife Species

The need for studies on the ability of various wildlife species to survive and the factors affecting their survival has become increasingly important in wildlife management research. Such information is not only essential for an understanding of population behavior but also for planning habitat improvement programs designed to meet specific requirements. One approach toward obtaining physiological information of this type is by subjecting an animal to an applied stress and measuring its resistance and survival time. Kabat, Meyer, Flakas, and Hine (1956) in Wisconsin carried out a series of experiments throughout the year on hen pheasants (Phasianus colchicus torquatus) in which they subjected the birds to the artificial stress of caging and starvation and measured the birds' resistance in terms of body-weight loss and body-temperature decline. The design of their studies was based on Selye's (1949) hypothesis that adaptation to a specific stress (such natural stresses as egg laying, molting, etc.) lowers the body's resistance to different stress to which the animal is not adapted. The applied stress, therefore, was used as a means of demonstrating whether there was seasonal variation in adaptation energy, and which of the naturally occurring physiological stresses caused the greatest decrease in resistance. These studies showed that the use of this technique appeared to produce reliable trends in stress resistance and survival time. There was variation in the hen pheasant's ability to survive the applied stress at different times of the year; this variation in stress resistance and survival time, furthermore, was related to the physiological condition of the hen. The hen pheasant studies opened the door to much more investigation along these lines. During the course of the Wisconsin pheasant experiments in January to March 1951, single tests were run on Hungarian partridge (Perdix perdix), chukar partridge (Alectoris graeca chukar), and cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus). The purpose of this report is to present the results of these tests in order to document the data and provide background information for other investigators contemplating similar studies.

The Chukar Partridge in Nevada

The chukar partridge, Alectoris graeca chukar (J. E. Gray), a Himalayan subspecies of the red-legged rock partridge occuring over much of southern Eurasia, has been introduced, chiefly in the last two decades, in many parts of the United States. What sucess in establishment it has had, has been chiefly in certain western states (Aldrich, 1947); probably it has been most successful in Nevada. Regular hunting seasons for the species were first possible in Nevada, although they have since (in the autumn of 1949) been opened in the state of Washington. The chukar partridge has, in a relatively short time, built up to rather large populations in some areas of Nevada even though comparatively small numbers of birds were liberated initially. It seems worthwhile, therefore, to record what has been learned concerning the chukar partridge in Nevada, both because continued effort is being made to establish or increase this partridge in this and other states and, more especially, because the population of this partridge has increased to such numbers that a shootable surplus has been produced. It is of considerable moment that another exotic game bird is succeeding in North America as have the Hungarian partridge and the ring-necked pheasant. Most of the reports on the chukar partridge in different states (Bade in California, 1937; Nagel in Missouri, 1939; et. al.) deal mainly with the introduction or artificial breeding of chukars and provide little information on the establishment and consequent activities of the bird in the wild state. Moreland's paper (1950) on the establishment of chukar partridge in Washington, and Nagel's (1945) paper are notable exceptions. The present report is concerned with the establishment of the partridge in Nevada and with understanding its success there. Methods of liberation, activities immediately subsequent to liberation, and establishment under conditions of partial domestication have been studied in Nevada as they were in California (Richardson, 1941) but, except for the last subject, will not be discussed here.

Adaptability of the Chukar Partridge to Missouri Conditions

The chukar partridge (Alectoris graeca chukar) was introduced into Missouri in 1934 when the Windsor Game Farm, operated by the Game and Fish Department, purchased two pairs and an extra cock from a California breeder. There then was considerable interest in chukars in Missouri, and the Department planned to raise enough for an extensive stocking program. When the new Conservation Commission was established in 1937, there were approximately 1,000 chukars on hand, all descendants of the original pairs. Their disposal was referred to the newlyestablished Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. Ordinarily neither the Commission nor the Research Unit would have been interested in such a problem, but the birds offered an opportunity to study experimental releases and the establishment of the species, should the latter occur. With the cooperation of associated departments in the University of Missouri, a study was planned of the life history, ecology, diseases, hatchery techniques, management, and adaptability of the species. The writer made the field investigations, with general assistance from Dr. Rudolf Bennitt of the University of Missouri and Dr. Paul D. Dalke of the U. S. Bureau of Biological Survey. The study began in September 1937. There were several initial justifications for the work: the available birds represented a considerable investment; they had received a good deal of publicity and sportsmen were interested; elimination of the ruffed grouse, prairie chicken, and wild turkey from most of their former ranges had left vacant niches which might possibly be filled by the exotic species; and there was an excellent opportunity to study the factors determining the success or failure of an apparently desirable exotic game bird, propagated artificially and released on Missouri range. Finally, if the birds were to be used, there was need to establish them under a system that would permit control if they became undesirable. The detailed life-history study was brief because the birds released in 1937 and 1938 tended to wander in widelyscattered groups. This was disadvantageous in two ways: They refused to settle down, so their range preferences could not be learned, and in no place were they sufficiently numerous to provide adequate data. By the end of the first year, one possible justification for their introduction had largely disappeared. With recovery from the 1934-36 drought and the use of changed farming practices, prairie chickens and bobwhite quail increased to where the latter were abundant on almost every type of range and the I Contribution from Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, American Wildlife Institute, Missouri Conservation Commission, and University of Missouri cooperating.

Report on helminths collected from an Indian chukar, with descriptions of two new species of Raillietina Fuhrmann, 1920

The helminths dealt with in the present paper were recovered from an Indian chukar, Alectoris graeca chukar, brought in for examination by Major H. O. Pugh, D.S.O., Glandyfi, Cardiganshire, on 21 April 1938. The bird was one of several which were brought over from India in December 1937, and which were kept in captivity up to the date of examination of the bird under consideration. The death of this bird was found to be due to entero-hepatitis caused by Histomonas meleagris (Smith, 1895).