Alcohol-related Intimate Partner Violence Research Articles

Effects of Alcohol Use and Minority Stress on Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration among Transgender and Gender Diverse People.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is highly prevalent among transgender and gender diverse (TGD) adults. Integrated theories of minority stress and alcohol-related IPV suggest minority stress risk and protective factors should interact with alcohol use to predict IPV, although this has never been examined in TGD adults. Thus, we examined the synergistic influence of alcohol use, minority stress, and TGD community connectedness on IPV perpetration among TGD adults. A sample of 137 TGD adults completed a cross-sectional survey assessing minority stressors (i.e., internalized transnegativity, identity outness), TGD community connectedness, alcohol use/problems, and IPV perpetration (i.e., psychological, physical, and gender minority identity-specific abuse). We regressed each form of IPV perpetration on alcohol use/problems and tested the moderating effect of internalized transnegativity, identity outness, and community connectedness on the association between alcohol use/problems and IPV perpetration. The association between alcohol use/problems and all forms of IPV perpetration were moderated by internalized transnegativity and identity outness, but not TGD community connectedness. Alcohol use/problems related to each form of IPV perpetration at low and medium, but not high levels, of identity outness and internalized transnegativity. Alcohol use/problems is an important risk factor for IPV perpetration among TGD adults and this association may be exacerbated by less identity outness. Further, internalized transnegativity might not influence IPV risk at high levels of alcohol use. TGD-affirming IPV prevention programs might focus on reducing alcohol use and related problems while providing a safe and accessible space for TGD individuals at various levels of identity outness.

Estimates and predictors of alcohol-related harm to intimate partners in Australia An analysis of a nationally representative survey

Aims: This study explores the prevalence and predictors reported in 2019 by men and women of alcohol-related intimate partner violence (ARIPV), that is, verbal abuse, physical abuse, and being put in fear by intimate partners, when partners were under the influence of alcohol. Methods: Secondary data analysis of the 2019 Australia’s cross-sectional National Drug Strategy Household Survey included 22,015 respondents aged 14 years or older (9,804 men, and 12,211 women). The prevalence of ARIPV and each type of ARIPV (verbal abuse, physical abuse, and being put in fear) in the past year is described, and the predictors of all are analysed using chi-square tests and logistic regressions, overall and separately for men and women. Results: An estimated 3.4% of the Australian adult population (4.7% women, 2.1% men) reported ARIPV in 2019. The prevalence of ARIPV was higher among the participants who were women, middle-aged (35-44 years), had a certificate or diploma, were less advantaged, were divorced, separated, or widowed, single with dependents, living in more regional, and remote areas, and undertook heavy episodic drinking (HED) weekly or less often. Age, marital status, household composition, and weekly, monthly, or ever HED predicted ARIPV for women, while higher education levels and weekly or monthly HED were significant for men. Discussion and conclusions: Women were twice as likely to report intimate partner violence (IPV) from their male partner when they were under the influence of alcohol, as were men. The findings underline that interventions are needed to address IPV from intoxicated partners.

Heart rate variability may index emotion dysregulation in alcohol-related intimate partner violence.

Intimate partner violence is a serious public health problem that costs the United States more than $4.1 billion in direct medical and mental health costs alone. Furthermore, alcohol use contributes to more frequent and more severe intimate partner violence incidents. Compounding this problem is treatments for intimate partner violence have largely been socially informed and demonstrate poor efficacy. We argue that improvements in intimate partner treatment will be gained through systematic scientific study of mechanisms through which alcohol is related to intimate partner violence. We hypothesize that poor emotional and behavioral regulation as indexed by the respiratory sinus arrythymia measure of heart rate variability is a key mechanism between alcohol use and intimate partner violence. The present study is a placebo-controlled alcohol administration study with an emotion-regulation task that investigated heart rate variability in distressed violent and distressed nonviolent partners. We found a main effect for alcohol on heart rate variability. We also found a four-way interaction whereby distressed violent partners exhibited significant reductions in heart rate variability when acutely intoxicated and attempting to not respond to their partners evocative stimuli. These findings suggest that distressed violent partners may adopt maladaptive emotion regulation strategies such as rumination and suppression when intoxicated and attempting to not respond to partner conflict. Such strategies of emotion regulation have been shown to have many deleterious emotional, cognitive and social consequences for individuals who adopt them, possibly including intimate partner violence. These findings also highlight an important novel treatment target for intimate partner violence and suggest that novel treatments should focus on teaching effective conflict resolution and emotion-regulation strategies that may be augmented by biobehavioral treatments such as heart rate variability biofeedback.

Contributions of Demand/Withdraw Processes and Alcohol Consumption on Emotional Flooding in Distressed Violent versus Distressed Non-Violent Couples.

Although alcohol-related intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious public health problem, the mechanisms underlying this association are poorly understood. For instance, prior research has shown differences in distressed violent (DV) and distressed nonviolent (DNV) couples' demand/withdraw communication and the extent to which they become emotionally flooded (i.e., physiologically aroused) in response to conflict. Additionally, alcohol use is associated with increased demand/withdraw communication, IPV, and emotional flooding. Therefore, the present study sought to clarify the association between demand/withdraw communication and emotional flooding among relationally couples who use alcohol and who do and do not experience IPV. Relationally distressed couples (Mage =30.1 years) reported on their physical aggression, demand/withdraw communication, emotional flooding, and total number of drinks during the past six months. Couples were denoted as DV (N = 58) if at least one partner reported IPV and DNV (N = 29) if neither partner reported IPV. Actor-partner interdependence modeling was used to test whether couple type (DV versus DNV) moderates the link between demand/withdraw behavior and emotional flooding. With one exception, alcohol use was unrelated to any of the processes under investigation in the current study. Moreover, men's and women's report of a woman-demand/man-withdraw pattern and man-demand/woman-withdraw pattern, respectively, were positively associated with each partner's own emotional flooding. Couple type (DV vs DNV) did not moderate these associations. The present results highlight the need for sensitive measures that can capture the nuanced processes that underlie IPV in couples who use alcohol.

Investigation of the Possible Moderators of Alcohol-Related Intimate Partner Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa

Alcohol-related intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious public health issue which has attracted a lot of research and debates. While some studies have reported the relationship between alcohol and IPV to be linear, others have reported threshold effects. While some studies have found the link to be strong, others have reported it to be weak or to show no association. The aim of this study was to determine the possible moderators on the alcohol-IPV link in sub-Saharan Africa. For the quantitative study, secondary analysis and meta-analysis were used to analyze cross-sectional data from the demographic and health surveys of ten countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe). Logistic regression analysis of possible moderators of the alcohol-IPV link was determined in ten sub-Saharan African countries. The nature of moderation was different among countries. The results of this study can be applied in planning country-specific and multi-faceted intervention programmes.

Alcohol use, depressive symptoms, and intimate partner violence perpetration: A longitudinal analysis among men with HIV in northern Vietnam.

BackgroundWhile the link between alcohol use and male-perpetrated intimate partner violence (IPV) has been well-established, research is needed to test whether psychosocial factors interact with alcohol use to exacerbate IPV perpetration. We tested whether depressive symptoms influenced the strength and/or direction of the alcohol-IPV relationship among men with HIV in Vietnam.MethodsThis study is a secondary analysis using data from a randomized controlled trial conducted in Thai Nguyen, Vietnam. Participants were clinic patients with HIV and hazardous alcohol use. Questionnaires were administered at baseline, three, six, and 12 months. Alcohol use was assessed as proportion of days alcohol abstinent. Analyses were restricted to males who reported being married/cohabitating at baseline (N = 313). Multilevel growth models were used to test whether time-varying depressive symptoms modified the time-varying effect of alcohol use on IPV perpetration.ResultsTime-varying depressive symptoms modified the effect of proportion of days alcohol abstinent on IPV perpetration. However, the pattern of effect modification was not as expected, as reporting depressive symptoms weakened the alcohol-IPV relationship. At times when participants screened negative for depressive symptoms, those who reported higher proportion of days alcohol abstinent than usual had significantly lower odds of IPV perpetration (Odds Ratio [OR] = 0.17, 95% Confidence Interval 0.06, 0.45, p = 0.0004). At times when participants screened positive for depressive symptoms, there was no observed effect of alcohol use on IPV perpetration (OR = 4.28, 95% CI 0.80, 22.78, p = 0.09).ConclusionThe findings highlight the complex nature of the alcohol-IPV relationship and the need to investigate the intersection between hazardous drinking, mental health, and IPV. Men who concurrently report depressive symptoms and heightened alcohol use may be socially isolated from an intimate partner or experiencing fatigue, leading to less alcohol-related IPV perpetration. Mental health interventions addressing depression and alcohol misuse integrated into HIV services may reduce IPV perpetration.

Relationship trajectories of women experiencing alcohol-related intimate partner violence: A grounded-theory analysis of women's voices.

The association between male partner alcohol use and increased risk and severity of their perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV) is well-established in quantitative research. However, few studies have explored the nature and trajectory of relationships involving partner drinking and abuse, and how women find pathways to safety. We conducted in-depth interviews with a community sample of 18 Australian women (aged 20-50 years) who reported feeling afraid when their male partner drank alcohol. Using a constructivist grounded theory approach, we identified key processes underpinning women's experience of alcohol-related IPV and mapped these over four relationship phases. Partner alcohol use played a key role in how women interpreted and dealt with IPV victimisation. In early relationships, women spoke of not seeing or dismissing early warning signs of problem drinking and aggression in settings that normalized men's heavy drinking. Later, women identified patterns of inter-connected drinking and aggression, leading to questioning their reality, trying to 'fix' their partner's drinking to stop the abuse, and in the absence of change, learning to manage daily life around the drinking and abuse. In the third phase, giving up hope that the partner would stop drinking, women ended the relationship. Finally, after leaving the abuser, women attempted to reset normal around drinking behaviour but continued to experience trauma associated with others' drinking in social settings. For women who have experienced partners' alcohol use intertwined with violence in their relationship, changing their partners' drinking plays a central role in their journey to safety, possibly obscuring recognition of abuse and complicating their ability to leave. Greater understanding of the stages of the alcohol-IPV relationship can help health providers support women as they navigate these complex relationships, and provide appropriate support depending on the needs of women in their relationship trajectory.

Frontal alpha asymmetry in alcohol-related intimate partner violence.

Electroencephalographic (EEG) frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) has been associated with differences in the experience and expression of emotion, motivation and anger in normal and clinical populations. The current study is the first to investigate FAA in alcohol-related intimate partner violence. EEG was recorded from 23 distressed violent (DV) and 15 distressed nonviolent (DNV) partners during a placebo-controlled alcohol administration and emotion-regulation study. The State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory 2 was used to evaluate anger experiences and was collected from both participants and their partners. During baseline, acute alcohol intoxication DV partners had significantly greater right FAA, whereas DNV partners showed greater left FAA. Both partner types demonstrated significantly greater right FAA during the placebo beverage condition of the emotion-regulation task when viewing evocative partner displays of contempt, belligerence, criticism, defensiveness and stonewalling, but greater left FAA during acute alcohol intoxication. Although no group differences were found in the emotion-regulation task, partner self-reported anger experiences accounted for 67% of the variance in the FAA of DV participants when intoxicated and viewing evocative stimuli, suggesting dyadic processes are important in understanding alcohol-related IPV. These findings suggest that FAA could index the affective and motivational determinants through which alcohol is related to IPV.

Advancing an Integrated Theory of Sexual Minority Alcohol-Related Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a prevalent and serious public health problem. Alcohol use and misuse is one of the most well-known antecedents of IPV perpetration. However, minimal research examined whether alcohol use increases the risk for IPV perpetration among individuals who identify as a sexual minority (i.e., lesbian, gay, bisexual, or another non-heterosexual identity [LGB+]). This is particularly concerning given that rates of IPV and alcohol use are as high, if not higher, in LGB+ populations relative to their heterosexual peers. In this article we provide a brief review of existing alcohol-related IPV research among LGB+ populations, advance an integrated model of alcohol-related IPV perpetration among LGB+ populations, and discuss avenues for future research on this topic. Our review identified limited research on alcohol-related IPV perpetration among LGB+ populations, with no longitudinal or event level research on this topic. Incorporating tenets of minority stress models with models of alcohol-related IPV (i.e., I3 and Alcohol Myopia Theory), we propose an integrated theory of alcohol-related IPV perpetration among LGB+ populations. Based on the limited information available in the literature, our integrated theoretical model suggests several avenues for future research on alcohol-related IPV perpetration among LGB+ populations. We discuss these future areas for research and the importance of incorporating sexual minority stress frameworks into these investigations.

Trait Jealousy Moderates the Relationship Between Alcohol Problems and Intimate Partner Violence Among Men in Batterer Intervention Programs.

Informed by alcohol myopia theory and Leonard's heuristic model of intimate partner violence (IPV), we hypothesized that alcohol problems would positively relate to IPV among men with high, but not low, trait jealousy. We collected cross-sectional, self-report data from 74 men arrested for domestic violence and court-ordered to batterer intervention programs (BIP). Alcohol problems positively related to physical and sexual IPV among men with high, but not low, trait jealousy. Results provide preliminary support for the need for BIP to target both jealousy-related cognitions and alcohol problems. Future research should investigate jealousy in relation to alcohol-related IPV.

2298 Central autonomic network dysfunction implicated in alcohol-related intimate partner violence

OBJECTIVES/SPECIFIC AIMS: Most incidents of partner violence occur when one or both partners have been drinking, however, the mechanism through which this association exists is unclear. The neural circuits that support self-regulation of emotion and social behavior, as well as autonomic influences on the heart, are co-localized in the brain and represent an integrated bidirectional regulatory system. These physiological regulatory processes are mediated by a neural substrate known as the central autonomic network which includes the peripheral autonomic nervous system. The central autonomic network modulates biobehavioral resources in emotion by flexibly responding to physiological arousal in response to changing situational demands, and serves a fundamental role in emotion regulation and goal-directed motor behavior, and this circuit can be indexed with heart rate variability (HRV). METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: In total, 17 distressed violent (DV) partners (11 females, 6 males) were matched to a sample of distressed nonviolent (DNV) partners (7 female, 6 males) were matched on age, sex, and relationship satisfaction and participated in a placebo-controlled alcohol administration study with an emotion-regulation task during which electroencephalography, HRV, and galvanic skin response (GSR) measures were collected. In the alcohol condition, participants were administered a mixture of 100 proof vodka and cranberry juice calculated to raise their blood alcohol concentration to 0.08%. In the placebo condition, participants consumed a volume of juice equivalent to that consumed in the alcohol condition, but without alcohol. Alcohol and placebo conditions were counter-balanced across participants as were the presentation the blocks of evocative and neutral partner stimuli and emotion-regulation condition (watch vs. do not react). RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: Results show that DV partners show greater cortical arousal than DNV partners on measures event-related spectral perturbations, which are mean log event-loced deviations from baseline-mean power at each frequency of the electroencephalography power spectra, when intoxicated and viewing evocative partner stimuli in the “do not react” emotion regulation condition. Results also show a statistically significant 2 (alcohol vs. placebo)×2 (watch vs. do not react)×2 (DV partners vs. DNV partners) interaction of the respiratory sinus arrhythmia measure of HRV when viewing evocative partner behavior (F=7.102, p=0.019, partial η2=0.353). Findings indicate that DV partners have lower HRV than DNV partners across conditions, but particularly when acutely intoxicated and trying not to react to their partners’ evocative behavior. Similarly, results also show a statistically significantly 2 (alcohol vs. placebo)×2 (watch vs. do not react)×2 (DV partners vs. DNV partners) interaction on GSR (F=71.452, p=0.000, partial η2=0.749). GSR findings indicate that DV partners also have lower GSR when acutely intoxicated and trying not to react to their partners’ evocative behavior. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT: These results suggest that increases in intimate partner violence under acute alcohol intoxication may be the result of dysfunction of the central autonomic network, especially when DV partners are trying to suppress a behavioral response to their partners’ evocative behavior in conflict. The neurophysiological patterns evidenced by DV partners is consistent with a state of vigilance to threat, and reduced ability inhibit prepotent, but inappropriate responses. They also suggest that HRV may be an important target for intervention with partner with a history of intimate partner violence. One method may be heart rate variability biofeedback which has been shown to increase parasympathetic nervous system functioning, autonomic stability, and emotion regulation.

To Examine the Relationship and Strength of Alcohol- Related Intimate Partner Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa

Alcohol-related intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious public health issue which has attracted a lot of research and debates. While some studies have reported the relationship between alcohol and IPV to be linear, others have reported threshold effects. While some studies have found the link to be strong, others have reported weak or no association. Using Logistic regression and meta-analysis, the relationship, strength of relationship and possible moderators of the alcohol-IPV link are investigated in ten sub-Saharan African countries. The results indicates that while alcohol consumption is associated with IPV in three of the countries, alcohol abuse was associated with IPV in the other seven countries lending support for both the linear and threshold effects in sub-Saharan Africa. The meta-analysis showed a strong association between alcohol and physical IPV while a weaker association was observed for the alcohol-sexual IPV link. Moderator analysis showed that the strength of the alcohol-IPV link in sub-Saharan Africa varies with wealth index, marital length, and marital status, and jealousy, place of residence and justification of the use of violence. The nature of moderation was different between countries. The results of this study can be applied to plan country specific and multi-faceted intervention programs.

To Examine the Relationship and Strength of Alcohol-Related Intimate Partner Violence in sub-Saharan Africa

To Examine the Relationship and Strength of Alcohol-Related Intimate Partner Violence in sub-Saharan Africa

EMOTION DYSREGULATION IN ALCOHOL RELATED INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

This article aims to investigate the association between emotion dysregulation and alcohol related intimate partner violence. A systematic review was conducted through a literature research for relevant studies on Medline, CINAHL Plus with Full Text, Psycoinfo and PsycArticle from inception through April 11, 2015. Additional articles were retrieved manually searching in reference lists. All relevant articles were accessed in full text. Data on study type; cases; controls; country; effect estimate; adjustments for confounders and quality of publication were extracted. The quality of the publications were scored by adherence to the STROBE and CONSORT 2010 checklists. Four studies satisfied the predefined criteria for inclusion and were included in this review. Results highlighted support for future research on emotion dysregulation and alcohol related intimate partner violence.

Gender and Country Differences in Alcohol-Aggression Expectancy and Alcohol-Related Intimate Partner Violence

ABSTRACTDrinking is associated with a higher rate of violent offending among males and a higher rate of violent victimization among females. Using comparable self-reported data, this study examines between the United States (n = 2,363) and Japan (n = 1,660) whether the gender difference in alcohol-related Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is explained by alcohol-aggression expectancy. The results indicate that though males are more likely than females to expect that alcohol would make them more aggressive, alcohol-aggression expectancy cannot explain the gender difference in alcohol-related IPV. In both countries, instead, alcohol use of males most strongly accounted for the gender difference in alcohol-related IPV.

Living the cycle of drinking and violence: A qualitative study of women's experience of alcohol-related intimate partner violence.

Heavy and binge drinking contributes to increased risk and severity of violence in intimate relationships, but its role in the initiation and escalation of intimate partner violence (IPV) is not well-understood. This study explores the dynamics of drinking and IPV from the perspectives of women with lived experience of alcohol-related IPV. A qualitative constructivist grounded theory study using interviews with 18 women aged 18-50 years who experienced fear or harm from an alcohol-affected male partner. Participants were recruited from the community in Victoria, Australia. Participants experienced alcohol-related IPV as a cycle of escalating violence accompanying the male partner's progression to intoxication as follows: starting to drink (having fun); getting drunk (looking for a fight); intoxicated ('switching' to escalated violence); drunk (becoming incapacitated); hungover/coming down (becoming mean-tempered); sober (returning to 'normal' life); and craving (building up to drinking again - for dependent drinkers). Participants identified safe and unsafe stages in the cycle but feared the unpredictability of drunken violence. Participants actively managed safety through four main strategies: preventing (e.g. limiting his drinking); predicting (e.g. recognising signs); responding (e.g. avoiding arguments); and protecting (e.g. removing self and children). Anticipating abuse when a partner drinks was the central process for participants living this cycle. For some women, alcohol plays a central role in the cycle of violence, abuse and fear. Alcohol-related intimate partner violence should be the focus of further research, prevention and treatment. [Wilson IM, Graham K, Taft A. Living the cycle of drinking and violence: A qualitative study of women's experience of alcohol-related intimate partner violence. Drug Alcohol Rev 2017;36:115-124].

Husband's Alcohol Use, Intimate Partner Violence, and Family Maltreatment of Low-Income Postpartum Women in Mumbai, India.

Husbands' alcohol use has been associated with family-level stress and intimate partner violence (IPV) against women in India. Joint family systems are common in India and IPV often co-occurs with non-violent family maltreatment of wives (e.g., nutritional deprivation, deprivation of sleep, blocking access to health care). Alcohol use increases for some parents following the birth of a child. This study examined 1,038 postpartum women's reports of their husbands' alcohol use and their own experiences of IPV (by husband) and non-violent maltreatment from husbands and/or in-laws. We analyzed cross-sectional, quantitative data collected in 2008, from women (ages 15-35) seeking immunizations for their infants <6 months at three large urban health centers in Mumbai, India. Crude and adjusted logistic regression models estimated associations between the independent variable (husbands' past month use of alcohol) and two dependent variables (postpartum IPV and maltreatment). Overall, 15% of husbands used alcohol, ranging from daily drinkers (10%) to those who drank one to two times per week (54%). Prevalence of postpartum IPV and family maltreatment was 18% and 42%, respectively. Prevalence of IPV among women married to alcohol users was 27%. Most abused women's husbands always (27%) or sometimes (37%) drank during violent episodes. Risk for IPV increased with a man's increasing frequency of consumption. Women who lived with a husband who drank alcohol, relative to non-drinkers, were more likely to report postpartum IPV, aOR = 2.0, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [1.3, 3.1]. Husbands' drinking was marginally associated with increased risk for family maltreatment, aOR = 1.4, 95% CI = [1.0, 2.1]. Our findings suggest that men's alcohol use is an important risk factor for postpartum IPV and maltreatment. Targeted services for Indian women contending with these issues are implicated. Postpartum care offers an ideal opportunity to screen for IPV, household maltreatment, and other health risks, such as husband's use of alcohol. There is need to scale up proven successful interventions for reducing men's alcohol use and design strategies that provide at-risk women protection from alcohol-related IPV.

Mechanisms of Alcohol-Facilitated Intimate Partner Violence.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a critical public health problem that requires clear and testable etiological models that may translate into effective interventions. While alcohol intoxication and a pattern of heavy alcohol consumption are robust correlates of IPV perpetration, there has been limited research that examines the mediating mechanisms of how alcohol potentiates IPV. We provide a theoretical and methodological framework for researchers to conceptualize how alcohol intoxication causes IPV, and propose innovative laboratory methods that directly test mediational mechanisms. We conclude by discussing how these innovations may lead to the development of interventions to prevent or reduce alcohol-related IPV.

Characteristics of adults involved in alcohol-related intimate partner violence: results from a nationally representative sample.

BackgroundMore than 12 million women and men are victims of partner violence each year. Although the health outcomes of partner violence have been well documented, we know very little about specific event-level characteristics that may provide implications for prevention and intervention of partner violence situations. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate substance abuse and dependence as risk factors for event-level alcohol-related intimate partner violence (IPV).MethodsData were derived from Wave II of the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (2004–2005). Eligible participants (N = 2,255) reported IPV the year before the survey. Negative binomial and ordinal regression methods were used to assess risk factors for alcohol use during IPV.ResultsRespondent PTSD was the only mental health diagnosis related to alcohol use during IPV (OR = 1.45). Marijuana use was related to respondents’ use of alcohol during IPV (OR = 2.68). Respondents’ meeting the criteria for alcohol abuse/dependence was strongly associated with respondent drinking (OR = 10.74) and partner drinking (OR = 2.89) during IPV.ConclusionResults indicate that PTSD, marijuana use disorders, alcohol abuse and dependence are associated with more frequent alcohol use during IPV. In addition, it is important to consider that the patient who presents in emergency settings (e.g., hospitals or urgent care facilities) may not be immediately identifiable as the victim or the perpetrator of partner violence. Therefore, screening and intervention programs should probe to further assess the event-level characteristics of partner violence situations to ensure the correct service referrals are made to prevent partner violence.

Alcohol outlet density, drinking contexts and intimate partner violence: a review of environmental risk factors.

Alcohol use is a robust predictor of intimate partner violence (IPV). A critical barrier to progress in preventing alcohol-related IPV is that little is known about how an individual's specific drinking contexts (where, how often, and with whom one drinks) are related to IPV, or how these contexts are affected by environmental characteristics, such as alcohol outlet density and neighborhood disadvantage. The putative mechanism is the social environment in which drinking occurs that may promote or strengthen aggressive norms. Once these contexts are known, specific prevention measures can be put in place, including policy-oriented (e.g., regulating outlet density) and individually oriented (e.g., brief interventions to reduce risk for spousal aggression) measures targeting at-risk populations. This paper reviews applicable theories and empirical research evidence that links IPV to drinking contexts and alcohol outlet density, highlights research gaps, and makes recommendations for future research.