Alberta Environment Research Articles

Clinician's Commentary on Cutforth et al.

There is a proliferation of clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) in medicine and rehabilitation. The purpose of a CPG is to distil research evidence into recommendations for clinical decision making.2 Cutforth et al.'s description1 of the development of the Alberta CPG for low back pain (LBP) is unique and exciting for three main reasons: it was developed collaboratively, is contextually relevant, and is multidisciplinary in nature. (Please also view their video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lkPv72O9ums.) The principle behind evidence-based practice (EBP) is that health care practitioners should use available evidence to determine effective, patient-relevant treatment. Yet study after study has revealed a significant gap between what is known and what is practised, that is, a gap between evidence and practice. The good news is that the gap can be partially bridged by translating evidence into CPGs. Regrettably, however, the uptake of guidelines in Canada has been less than successful.3 For example, knowledge about best practices for subacute and chronic LBP remains low.4,5 Harman et al.6 found that although physiotherapists understand the importance of active versus passive treatment in managing subacute LBP, they continue to use passive interventions that are not supported by the literature. Thus, the remaining gap requires a bridge in the form of actual acceptance and use of guidelines in everyday clinical practice (i.e., guideline uptake).5 The characteristics of the guideline itself, of the practitioner/professional, and the of practice setting are factors that affect guideline uptake.3,7–9 The Alberta researcher–clinician partnership process described by Cutforth et al. confronts this issue and attempts to diminish the barriers to guideline uptake. Here, front-line clinicians worked with researchers to bridge the gap between research findings and service delivery, taking into consideration the health care environment in Alberta. Their process and methodology represent a model for others who aim to improve outcomes by integrating existing CPGs into practice in the management of LBP. This guideline incorporates existing strong evidence for the multidimensional bio-psychosocial approach to pain assessment and management. Clinicians working in a collaborative inter-professional environment will find these guidelines immediately useful. It is clear that one-dimensional treatment interventions alone have only modest success in preventing or remediating chronic pain and related disability. For example, there is insufficient evidence for the effectiveness of any single intervention (e.g., back schools, low-level laser therapy, patient education, massage, traction, superficial heat/cold, or lumbar supports) for chronic LBP.10 Pharmacological management alone is equally disappointing in managing chronic pain. Yet there is moderate to strong evidence that multidimensional, inter-professional bio-psychosocial approaches that include self-management strategies provide the best outcomes.11–17,18–21 It is time to implement this evidence in practice. Barriers to guideline uptake in one practice setting may not be present in another.9 Inter-professional guidelines such as those developed in Alberta require collaborative practice.22 In Alberta, physical therapists are integrated into the team and play a critical role in collaborative, inter-professional bio-psychosocial assessment and management of chronic pain. In some other provinces, however, this is not the case. For example, the Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care has developed Family Health Teams (FHTs) comprising nurses, nurse practitioners, dieticians, social workers, psychologists, physicians, and pharmacists but, to date, has refused to fund physiotherapists as part of FHTs. Therefore, FHTs must rely on other professions to implement evidence-based care. This means that in the Ontario public sector, primary-care physical therapy is considered by government to be complementary rather than essential. Collaborative practice for the prevention and remediation of chronic disease is one of our main strengths as a profession. Rehabilitation for individuals with other chronic diseases, such as stroke, diabetes, chronic lung disease, and osteoporosis, has long been inter-professional and based on patient-centred functional goals. In assessing and managing these conditions, physiotherapists are essential, and they successfully use a chronic-disease rehabilitation model to improve care and outcomes. These are examples not just of an acute model applied to a chronic condition but, instead, of an evidence-based model of care. The same collaborative approach is required for the management of chronic pain. Interventions such as personalized goal setting, graded movement, self-management, work readiness, and functional restoration are essential components23 of rehabilitation for chronic pain. Cutforth et al.1 have provided a model by developing a multidisciplinary CPG that integrates knowledge into collaborative practice for multiple health professions. This is a logical and meaningful first step. Let's embrace it!

Characterizing the state and processes of change in a dynamic forest environment using hierarchical spatio-temporal segmentation

Discrete changes in forest abundance, distribution, and productivity are readily detectable using a number of remotely sensed data sources; however, continuous changes such as growth and succession processes are more difficult to monitor. In this research we explore the potential of spectral trajectories generated from a 35-year (1973–2008) time-series of Landsat imagery to characterize change processes in a dynamic forest environment in northwestern Alberta, Canada. We propose a method of hierarchical spatio-temporal segmentation that enables the characterization of change processes that are spatially diffuse and temporally imprecise. Calibrated imagery from Landsat sensors are radiometrically normalized and two metrics derived from the Tasseled Cap Transformation components, greenness and brightness, are used to generate the Tasseled Cap Angle (TCA). The TCA is a measure of the proportion of vegetation to non-vegetation (the occupation state), and its derivative, the Process Indicator (PI), is a measure of change in this proportion through time. These indices condense information from the visible and near-infrared wavelengths, and facilitate lengthy time series analysis of forest landscape change using data from all Landsat sensors. A combination of the original TCA and its derivative sequence are input to a three level hierarchical segmentation process with the highest and lowest levels defining homogeneous objects at the initial and final date, and the intermediate level identifying trajectories with similar change processes. The development through time of the TCA and PI are described, and the spatial and temporal associations of processes are statistically assessed using the Moran's Index. A full range of change types were identified on the landscape, from stand replacing disturbances to more subtle growth and succession processes. Results indicate that the study area is in a constant state of change, and maintains a high average proportion of vegetation to non-vegetation. The amount of total landscape modified per decade increased from 18% and 14% in the 1970s and 1980s respectively, to more than 30% and 33% in the 1990s and 2000s. On average, the proportion of vegetation to non-vegetation was increasing prior to 1981, decreasing between 1981 and 1997, and increasing post-1997. There was a high degree of spatial autocorrelation amongst change processes, with a maximum Moran's I of 0.79 in 1973; landscape change became more spatially disperse and widespread after 1981. Temporal correlation of change processes was observed locally, with the period 1990–1995 having the most persistent change.

Alberta’s Oil Sands: Hard Evidence, Missing Data, New Promises

Pitched battles are a regular occurrence in northern Alberta, Canada, as development of the province’s oil sands continues to expand. One ongoing battle—with another salvo launched in February 2011 with the leak of a European Commission report1—concerns how dirty oil sands are, relative to other fuels. Another concerns the influence of the oil sands industry in monitoring its own activity.2 In an effort to cut through the rhetoric of health advocates, industry representatives, environmentalists, government officials, and local residents, the Royal Society of Canada (RSC) selected and covered expenses for an expert panel to winnow out the facts. In a report issued 15 December 20103 the panel cited substantial evidence that efforts to extract oil from the Alberta deposits have degraded air, land, and water quality to varying degrees. The extent of the degradation is sometimes controversial; water quality data, in particular, are subject to differing interpretations and attributions of causality. However, the panel says that, based on publicly available evidence, there appear to be no significant human health threats to the general population either now or from development anticipated in the next decade or so. But the panel also warns that their conclusions come with a major caveat: there are major gaps in health and environmental data, risk assessments, government oversight, information transparency, industry efforts, and disaster preparedness. The health of the region could hinge on these gaps being addressed, particularly since, according to Travis Davies, a spokesman for the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, 97% of projected oil extraction and processing is still to come. After the RSC panel reviewed reams of publicly available information on factors such as health status, air and water pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, land disturbance, and energy and water consumption, it concluded that “[t]he claim by some critics of the oil sands industry that it is the most environmentally destructive project on earth is not supported by the evidence. However, for Canada and Alberta, the oil sands industry involves major environmental issues on many fronts which must be addressed as a high priority.”3p293

Improving cumulative effects assessment in Alberta: Regional strategic assessment

The Government of Alberta, Canada is developing a regulatory framework to better manage cumulative environmental effects from development in the province. A key component of this effort is regional planning, which will lay the primary foundation for cumulative effects management into the future. Alberta Environment has considered the information needs of regional planning and has concluded that Regional Strategic Assessment may offer significant advantages if integrated into the planning process, including the overall improvement of cumulative environmental effects assessment in the province.

Instream Flow and Athabasca Oil Sands Development: Contracting Out/Waiver of Legal Water Rights to Protect Instream Flow — A Legal Analysis

As Alberta Athabasca oil sands development increases, so do the oil sands industry’s water requirements from the Athabasca River. In an attempt to address the competing interests of industry’s needs and maintain sufficient instream flow in the River to support aquatic ecological needs, Alberta Environment and the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans developed a Water Management Framework designed to identify and protect instream flow requirements. This article examines the Framework’s interaction with legal rights, particularly in the context of licences granted under Alberta water rights legislation. The article raises and analyzes issues concerning the enforceability of the Framework as either a contracting out or waiver of legal rights. As well it considers the effectiveness of the industry agreement made in connection with the Framework. Finally, the article discusses alternative possibilities for reconciling industry’s water needs with the protection of the aquatic environment.

Evaluation of a professional development course for pharmacists on laboratory values: can practice change?

The practice environment in Alberta has emerged as the most unique in North America, including access to laboratory values, a province-wide electronic health record and legislation to support additional prescribing authority for qualified pharmacists. A course to help pharmacists integrate laboratory values in their medication management of patients was introduced to prepare pharmacists for these changes. The purpose of this study was to evaluate pharmacists' experience with a continuing professional development (CPD) course and its impact on pharmacists' knowledge, confidence and change in practice. A 12-week CPD course for pharmacists on interpreting laboratory values was delivered as a 2-day interactive workshop followed by three distance-learning sessions. The evaluation explored pharmacists' knowledge and confidence using laboratory values in practice, changes in practice and effectiveness of course delivery through pre- and post-course surveys and interviews. Pharmacists' knowledge about laboratory tests and confidence discussing and using laboratory values in practice significantly improved after course completion. The blended delivery format was viewed positively by course participants. Pharmacists were able to implement learning and make changes in their practice following the course. A CPD course for pharmacists on integrating laboratory values improved pharmacists' knowledge and confidence and produced changes in practice.

Selection Efficiency across Environments in Improvement of Barley Yield for Moderately Low Nitrogen Environments

Developing barley (Hordeum vulgare L) cultivars suitable for low‐N conditions is important for sustainable production. In breeding for low‐N environments, it must be decided whether a separate breeding program is necessary for this environment or if it can be performed as part of a multienvironmental testing and selection strategy. The objective of this study was to determine the efficiency of indirect selection based on performance under the traditional multiple high N environments versus direct selection under the low‐N conditions. Twelve experiments, each consisting of 18 to 25 barley genotypes, were conducted in five to eight environments including a low‐N environment in Alberta, Canada, from 2001 to 2006. The low‐N conditions used in this study simulated reduced N application as would be used to produce malting barley in western Canada, so the level of N‐stress imposed would be considered moderate. Genetic correlations between mean grain yield across multiple high N environments and the yield in the low‐N trial was positive and high, ranging from 0.83 to 1.00. The predicted correlated response in grain yield under low N to selection based on mean yields across multiple high‐N environments relative to the predicted response to direct selection in the low‐N environment ranged from 0.81 to 1.18. This implies that breeding for low‐N conditions relevant to malting barley cultivation in western Canada and similar circumstances can be performed as part of the selection strategy for broad adaptation.

A genetic analysis of weed competitive ability in spring wheat

Competition with weeds decreases crop yields globally. Breeding for competitive ability against elevated weed pressure can be difficult because the selection for specific traits which contribute to competitive ability may result in yield losses. The widely studied International Triticeae Mapping Initiative (ITMI) population was used to study the genetics of traits associated with competitive ability in a high latitude (52-53ºN) wheat-growing environment in central Alberta, Canada. Grain yield without weed competition and under experimentally sown cultivated oat competition exhibited similar heritability. Grain yield was positively correlated with early season vigour, and negatively correlated with days to maturity in the competitive treatment only. In this study, similar heritability estimates between competition treatments suggest that selection in a weed free environment can lead to improvements in a weedy environment, but some high-yielding lines under competition would be eliminated during selection.Key words: Wheat, weed competition, competitive ability, International Triticeae Mapping Initiative, genetic correlation

Oil Sands Development: A Health Risk Worth Taking?

As traditional petroleum supplies dwindled and prices soared over the past few years, oil companies have shifted their attention to oil sands, a mix of sand, water, and a heavy, viscous hydrocarbon called bitumen that can be converted to oil. With the plunge in oil prices in fall 2008, many producers began canceling or postponing plans to expand oil sands development projects, but this turn of events could yet reverse, as Canada’s vast oil sands deposits are lauded as a secure source of imported oil for the United States. At the same time, however, oil sands present troubling questions in terms of the environmental health effects associated with their development.

Metal concentrations in water, sediment, and fish from sewage-fed aquaculture ponds of Kolkata, India

The concentrations of lead, cadmium, chromium, copper, and zinc were investigated in the sewage-fed pond water, sediment, and the various organs of Labeo rohita, Catla catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, Oreochromis mossambicus, and Cyprinus carpio cultured in sewage-fed ponds, Kolkata, India. Among the metals, cadmium, lead, and zinc were detected in water and, except lead, were below the water quality guideline levels for the protection of freshwater aquatic life proposed by CEQG (Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines) and AENV (Alberta Environment). Therefore, lead could pose danger to aquatic organisms. All the five metals were detected in the sediment and, except cadmium and lead, were below the sediment quality guideline levels for aquatic life proposed by EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Therefore, these two metals could be toxic to aquatic organisms. Significant (P > 0.05) differences were observed among the five fish species for all these metals accumulation. Also, significant (P > 0.05) differences were noticed among these metals accumulation in fish organs. Cadmium showed the least bioaccumulation, while zinc showed the highest bioaccumulation in all the fish species. Though the metal concentration in the different fish tissues was variable, the highest concentration was found in kidney and the lowest in the muscle. Concentrations of these metals in the muscle tissue of all the fish species were well below the consumption safety tolerance in fish set by WHO/FAO, and thus, so far as these metals are concerned, these sewage-fed cultured fishes are safe and suitable for human consumption.

Simulation of the hydrological processes on reconstructed watersheds using system dynamics

Reconstruction of disturbed watersheds is a common practice by the oil sands industry in northern Alberta, Canada. The reconstruction and restoration of the watershed hydrology are required as part of the reclamation mandated by Alberta Environment for mine closure. Assessment of the hydrological performance of the reconstructed watersheds is essential to ensure a sustainable reclamation strategy. A conceptual lumped system dynamics watershed (SDW) model is developed and calibrated in this study. The model, built within an object-based simulation environment, is capable of simulating the various hydrological processes in the reconstructed watersheds with good accuracy. STELLA Software is used as an object-based simulation environment that allows visual computations. The SDW model developed combines both physically-based and empirical formulations to replicate the hydrological system mathematically. The system dynamics approach along with the visual simulation environment help in developing a simulation-for-learning model, not only simulation for prediction. The model is successfully calibrated and validated; the results show that the SDW model is capable of simulating the various hydrological processes (soil moisture, evapotranspiration and runoff) with good accuracy. The SDW model can help in the assessment of the short- and long-term performances of the reconstructed watersheds, thus providing a useful decision-aid tool for the mining industry.

Climate Change Impacts in the Elbow River Watershed

The Elbow River Watershed originates in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains and is a primary source of water for the City of Calgary. Consequently, the long-term protection and investment of this resource is a primary interest to the City of Calgary. While droughts and water shortages are a serious concern to Albertans, spring freshet flooding may lead to enormous costs virtually overnight. The impacts of climate change on spring flooding in the Elbow River Watershed were determined using both a statistical analysis of historical hydro-climatological data and a modelling analysis using the Canadian Regional Climate Model (CRCM) forcing to the SSARR Watershed model, which is used by Alberta Environment for flood forecasting. Statistical analyses revealed that there were significantly increasing trends in annual mean temperature in the eastern most part of the watershed (+0.007°C/yr) caused by significant trends during February and March only. Significantly increasing trends in annual mean temperature in the western portion of the watershed were also observed (+0.056°C/yr) and were primarily due to increases in January, March, April, July and August. There were no demonstrated trends in total annual precipitation but significant decreases in snowfall were observed in the eastern portion of the watershed. Conversely, increases in snowfall were observed in the western portion near the foothills. No significant trends were observed in discharges within this watershed. Modelling spring freshet flooding using the SSARR and CRCM models showed that spring time flooding due to expected increases in precipitation during the month of May can nearly double flood peaks.

Hydraulic, water quality, and isotopic characterization of Late Cretaceous-Tertiary Ardley coal waters in a key test-well, Pembina-Warburg exploration area, Alberta, Canada

Abstract A detailed evaluation of the hydraulic parameters and formation fluids of a key test-well completed in the uppermost Ardley coal was undertaken in the Pembina-Warburg exploration area, Alberta Basin, Alberta, Canada. The testing method isolated the target coal zone from the overlying Paskapoo Formation with an intermediate casing set in the coal. Measurements showed a build-up of fluid (water) pressure within the coal to approximately 1,470 kPa. Detailed hydrogeological testing showed that the permeability of the coal is clearly less than 5 mD and likely on the order of 1 mD. Formation waters sampled during the drawdown and build-up phases were Na-HCO3 type with salinities of approximately 1,920 mg/L TDS (calculated). Sodium and chloride concentrations were approximately 835 and 250 mg/L, respectively. Detailed analyses of the formation waters showed that dissolved and total trace metal concentrations fall within Canadian drinking water quality standards with the exception of iron and manganese. Organic compounds including monocyclic aromatics (Benzene, Toluene, Ethyl-benzene, Xylene, BTEX) were not detected, with the exception of trace toluene concentrations. Anomalously high bicarbonate concentrations of up to 1650 mg/L (δ13CDIC +22.50 ‰) and dissolved methane concentrations of up to 36 mg/L (δ13CCH4 −48.32 ‰) point to the presence of secondary biogenic gas. Formation waters are non-tritiated; δ18O and δ2H values plot along the local groundwater line for Edmonton, Alberta indicating a meteoric origin. Data from the test-well suggest that depressurization (i.e., diversion of fluids) of the coal zone is necessary for gas production. If depressurization is contained to within the coalbeds, relatively small quantities of produced fluids would be anticipated. Although most of the groundwater for consumption within the immediate area of the test well is obtained from shallower parts of the flow systems in the uppermost parts of the Paskapoo Formation, under the current regulatory framework a Preliminary Groundwater Assessment as defined by the Alberta Environment and the EUB (2004) would be necessary prior to diversion.

Hepatotoxic Cyanobacteria: A Review of the Biological Importance of Microcystins in Freshwater Environments

Cyanobacteria possess many adaptations to develop population maxima or “blooms” in lakes and reservoirs. A potential consequence of freshwater blooms of many cyanobacterial species is the production of potent toxins, including the cyclic hepatotoxins, microcystins (MCs). Approximately 70 MC variants have been isolated. Their toxicity to humans and other animals is well studied, because of public health concerns. This review focuses instead on the production and degradation of MCs in freshwater environments and their effects on aquatic organisms. Genetic research has revealed the existence of MC-related genes, yet the expression of these genes seems to be regulated by complex mechanisms and is influenced by environmental factors. In natural water bodies, the species composition of cyanobacterial communities and the ratio of toxic to nontoxic species and strains are largely responsible for total toxin production. Cyanobacteria play vital roles in aquatic food webs, yet production, accumulation, and toxicity patterns of MCs within aquatic food webs remain obscure. R. Zurawell was supported by a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Grant to E. Prepas. The authors wish to thank D. G. Dixon for the inspiration to write this review and S. Pinder for assisting with figure preparation. Thorough reviews of earlier drafts by two anonymous reviewers greatly improved the content and logical development of this article.Current address for Ronald W. Zurawell is Environmental Monitoring and Evaluation Branch, Environmental Assurance Division, Alberta Environment, 10th Floor, Oxbridge Place, 9820-106 St., Edmonton, AB T5K 2J6, Canada.

Modeling Sedimentation in Stormwater Storage Facilities

Alberta Environment has implemented stormwater quality enhancement requirements for all new development areas in Calgary draining to the Bow River system. Curr…

Application of a Dynamic 2-D Mixing Model to Assess the Impact of Chemical Spills on Raw Water Quality

A non-steady-state two-dimensional river mixing model was used in conjunction with the Hec-2 water surface profile model to develop a “spill model” by which impact of chemical spills on the raw water quality of a water treatment plant can be assessed. The dynamic 2-D mixing model was applied to the North Saskatchewan River between Devon and the Rossdale Water Treatment Plant in Edmonton, Alberta. Hec-2 compatible data were used to estimate surface water elevations for the river under varying discharge conditions. To ensure accurate estimates of the surface water elevations, Hec-2 was calibrated using the high water mark data, which were collected by the Alberta Environment during the 1986 Edmonton flood. The calibrated Hec-2 model was then used to estimate surface water elevations using flowrates from 50 m3 s1 to 5000 m3 s1. The dynamic mixing model was modified so it could utilize the cross sectional geometry data and estimated water surface elevations obtained from the Hec-2 model. Several input files were prepared for the mixing model, representing various discharge conditions of the river. A user-friendly interface was developed allowing operators easy manipulation of the mixing model. Provisions were also incorporated to allow input of required spill data such as the location of the spill, types of chemicals involved, and the magnitude of the spill. The two-dimensional mixing model estimates the concentration of a conservative chemical(s) at any point downstream of the chemical spill.

AEC Glacier alpine bluegrass

AEC Glacier alpine bluegrass, Poa alpina L., is a reclamation cultivar developed for use in reclaiming and revegetating disturbed sites at high elevations. It is the second alpine bluegrass cultivar released by the Alberta Environmental Centre, Vegreville, AB. This cultivar is expected to complement a prior release, AEC Blueridge alpine bluegrass. AEC Glacier is adapted to high elevations where it is capable of rapid growth and seed production. Key words: Alpine bluegrass, Poa alpina, cultivar description, reclamation

Divided land base and overlapping forest tenure in Alberta, Canada: A simulation study exploring costs of forest policy

The forest planning environment in Alberta is complicated by multiple forms of forest tenure and by an arbitrary division of the forest into separate softwood and hardwood land bases. The area within and surrounding the Alberta-Pacific Forest Industries Inc. Forest Management Agreement (FMA) area exemplifies the problem, with a large number of independent forest products companies operating in the area. We model 17 sawmill operators and the Alberta-Pacific pulp mill trying to simultaneously satisfy their mill feedstock requirements from a forest.We examined the inefficiencies introduced by this tenure system using Tardis, a computer simulation model incorporating access development, timber harvest, and regeneration. We examined two scenarios: one representing the business-as-usual case where the 18 forest products companies are operating independently, and one where the forest is managed by one company that harvests timber and delivers it to each of the mills.The costs of the present tenure arrangements are, we believe, substantial enough to warrant a thorough re-examination of forest policy and tenure arrangements in Alberta, specifically with respect to land base designation and overlapping tenures. Key words: forest tenure, simulation modelling, timber harvest scheduling, policy analysis

Promises Made, Promises Broken

INTRODUCTIONDuring the autumn of 1997, the environment was on the front pages of Canadian newspapers in a way not seen since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. A vigorous and very public debate over the position Canada should take at the international negotiations for a legally binding agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions was carried out amongst feuding departments and their ministers in Ottawa, the provinces, environmentalists, and the fossil fuel industry. The last two made unprecedented use of full-page newspaper advertisements, one to warn of the spread of infectious diseases which might accompany global warming and the other of 'economic suicide' if Canada were to enter into any commitments, beyond those made at Rio, to reduce use or production of fossil fuels.(f.1) The politicians, for their part, had no need to rely on advertising to get public attention, since the opposition parties, sensing political opportunity in the inability of the Liberal government of Jean Chretien to manage the file and quietly broker a Canadian position, went on the attack daily in question period in the House of Commons. Representatives of provincial governments joined the debate. Alberta's environment minister warned that any use of federal taxing powers to induce energy conservation would lead his province to consider secession.(f.2) When Canadian negotiators finally agreed at Kyoto to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by six per cent no later than 2012, Premiers Roy Romanow of Saskatchewan and Gary Filmon of Manitoba immediately denounced Ottawa's failure to work co-operatively with the provinces, while Alberta's premier, Ralph Klein, declared that such a commitment was simply 'not acceptable.'(f.3)Immediately after these outbursts the issue disappeared from the news. Klein and the oil and coal industries have seen no need to continue their public protest following the Kyoto meeting. Instead of taking action to bring about the reductions in emissions of carbon dioxide and other gases agreed to at Kyoto, the federal and provincial governments announced plans to develop 'a process to examine the cost and the benefits of implementing the Kyoto Protocol and the various options for implementing the Protocol that are open to Canada.'(f.4) Whether or not the Kyoto Protocol will ever be ratified and implemented in Canada is open to question. In Rio in 1992 the Canadian government made a commitment to stabilize emissions of carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases at 1990 levels by 2000. Canada cannot meet the 1992 commitment. It is very likely that the Kyoto commitment will prove just as hollow.Why have successive Canadian governments appeared enthusiastic in international forums to make commitments to emissions reductions only to subsequently break those promises? The answer to that question can be found in part in domestic sources of foreign policy. Of particular importance in this case is the role of provincial governments. But the domestic bargaining process alone cannot fully explain the evolution of Canadian climate change policy. Canadian policy is inevitably affected by international processes and by geography.Decision-makers in Ottawa have to consider the interests of the United States as much as those of Alberta. While other variables are also important in this case, we believe that the absence or presence of pressure from the provinces, coupled with the activities and geographic reality of the United States, are the most significant variables.A CHRONOLOGYClimate change is the enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect by both human and natural activities. The anthropogenic forcing arises from activities such as transportation, deforestation, agriculture, industrial production and output, and forestry. Greenhouse gas emissions have multiple sources that are not isolated to the activities of one state. Climate change is a global issue that requires global action. …

A synopsis of lake sturgeon management in Alberta, Canada

Summary The lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) is resident in the North and South Saskatchewan rivers of Alberta. Because of their confined distribution, low abundance, and vulnerability to anthropogenic impacts, lake sturgeon in Alberta have been the focus of specific management actions for nearly 60 years. Lake sturgeon harvest was prohibited in Alberta from 1940 to 1968, after which a limited harvest was again permitted, but only as a hook-and-line sport fishery. After being reopened the fishery was primarily managed as a “trophy” fishery. Sport fishery harvest statistics have been compiled annually since 1968, through mail-out questionnaires sent to all holders of sturgeon angling licenses. Few research studies have been undertaken on the life history or habitat requirements of lake sturgeon in the province, and biologists have relied primarily on anglers to provide information for management decisions. Preliminary population information for the South Saskatchewan River, from mark-recapture data, suggests a population size of about 3700 fish. Recent studies in the North Saskatchewan River indicate a population of about 1300 fish. Studies indicate that a portion of the population in both rivers is trans-boundary, moving between the waters of the adjoining provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and creating concerns because of differences in angling regulations. During recent decades, major consumptive uses of water have also contributed to depletion of lake sturgeon habitat in the province. After reviewing past management strategies and actions, Alberta Environmental Protection implemented a number of regulatory changes in 1987 to further protect lake sturgeon populations in the province while continuing to provide angling opportunities and maintaining a controlled harvest.