Albanian Migration Research Articles

Turning Brain Drain into Brain Network and Brain Exchange: A Case Study of Kosovo Albanian Diaspora in the United States

ABSTRACT This paper explores strategies for Kosovo Albanian migrants in the United States to contribute to the development of their home country, without necessarily returning. There are many diverse possibilities and practices suggested by migrants, who should be supported by governments and facilitated by Kosovar embassies and consulates. This research draws on 35 biographical interviews conducted in 2023 and 2024 with migrants in the United States. The findings suggest that migrants are willing to share their experience and expertise through the creation of brain networks and brain exchanges. These strategies include the creation of an official network-building website, regular communication channels, a diaspora database and various policies and initiatives by the government to leverage the expertise and talent of these individuals for the nation’s benefit.

A Sociological View on The Impacts of Minority Rights in EU and Migration

After the fall of communism in Albania, migration destinations occurred toward neighbouring states such as Italy, Greece, European countries (Germany, Switzerland, England, Belgium, etc) and also all over the world (US, Canada Australia, etc.). The flow of Albanian migration was expended in a huge amount from different social classes to other states. Because of different social, cultural, economic and political reasons, the migration flow can be identified as a complex migration phenomenon. Consequently, for these reasons, sometimes the Albanian migrants have been discriminated against. This research paper is going to be focused on the Albanian migrants and their minorities’ rights in European states. Another aspect of this paper will be focused on the problem of the well of functions of minority rights causing the anomies to the social and personal identities of migrants.
 
 Received: 19 February 2024 / Accepted: 15 March 2024 / Published: 23 March 2024

Международная миграция и формирование албанской диаспоры: от крушения коммунистического режима до Европейского миграционного кризиса

The article examines the role of migration in the formation of the national diaspora outside the traditional area of residence of the Albanian ethnos. The authors conducted a content analysis of documents of international organizations that monitor and regulate population migration, the European Union, as well as Albanian plans for the development of the diaspora. Two periods of Albanian migration were identified: within the first period, which lasted until the fall of the communist regime in the early 1990s, an “old” diaspora was formed in Europe based on the population of Albania proper; the second period, which continues to the present, is characterized by the formation of a “new” diaspora of Albanians – immigrants from Kosovo, Montenegro and Macedonia. In the 1990s, the migration of Albanians was predominantly spontaneous. In the 2000s, as a result of the liberalization of the visa regime with the EU countries, migration from Albania gradually became more organized and in line with European requirements: one of the results of this was the increase in the scale of return migration of Albanians. In the 2010s and early 2020s, there was an increase in the power of migration flows from Asian countries to the European Union, which led to a migrant crisis – Albania has become a country of transit non-Albanian migration for the first time. The geographical structure of migration from Albania over the past 30 years has undergone a significant transformation due to a change in the priorities of the Albanians, who choose for their resettlement not territorially close (Greece and Italy), but economically more developed (USA; Canada; Belgium; UK – especially after Brexit; Germany – the main destination of migration flows from Albania at the moment) countries. This trend has become especially noticeable since the mid-2000s, which is explained by the growing share of migrants with higher education leaving the country legally. The leadership of Albania uses the influential diaspora in negotiations with Brussels regarding the country’s accession to the EU and remittances from Albanian migrants form – according to various estimates – up to 25% of its GDP. The final part of the article draws conclusions that without the help of Albania the diaspora can gradually dissolve in the accepting society, while the state, without taking steps to strengthen ties with the diaspora, will lose the assistance of millions of compatriots, many of whom have unique knowledge, financial and technological capabilities.

Migration policy in Albania: institutional aspects

After the fall of the communist regime Albania turned from a closed country into a country of net emigration. The article examines the evolution of Albanian migration policy from 1990 to 2022. The purpose of the study is to identify the approaches to the regulation of international migration in the context of the integration of Albania into the EU. The research is based on the state and supranational sources in the field of migration: legislative and regulatory acts, strategies, action plans, international agreements. The period under consideration is divided into two almost equal parts in relation to the level of participation of Albania in the regulation of migration. The first period (until the mid-2000s) is characterized by a relatively passive stance, relying primarily on external forces which regulate migration from Albania, such as other countries of the region and the EU. With the adoption of the Strategy for Migration Management in 2005 Albania took a more active stance, focused, on the one hand, on comprehensive and multidirectional interaction with the Albanian diaspora and, on the other, on reducing emigration by creating new jobs. It is revealed that the measures taken to return the representatives of the diaspora to the country and reduce the emigration activity of the current inhabitants of Albania are not enough. The diaspora plays a significant role in the economy of Albania, however, it does not seek re-emigration. The effect of job creation was largely offset by the European migrant crisis.

The (big) role of family constellations in return migration and transnationalism

PurposeThe Albanian migration has always reflected a family character, be that before 1945 when Albania was not yet completely isolated, as well as after 1990 when borders were reopened. This feature characterized all types of movement, internal or international, permanent or seasonal migration, return migration or transnational movements and remigration. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of the family as a very important factor in making decisions regarding migration and answering questions from why to how to migrate, from when to where, whom to ask for help or how to invest remittances.Design/methodology/approachBased on the case study of a rural area in Northern Albania, the Administrative Unit of Dajç, this paper explores in detail the roles of family and kinship on decisions regarding return migration, the re-adjustment process, remigration or transnational life.FindingsBy exploring the role of the family context in remigration and vice-versa, the paper reflects that the family biography – including the lifestyle, plans for the future or expectations – has changed due to previous migration experiences or challenges and difficulties when returning to the home country.Originality/valueIt demonstrates how individual decisions to migrate or to “return home” are negotiated and supported within families making transnational life a family project. The paper adopts a new approach in the Albanian Migration Studies, which may be implied on broader areas for further research in the future.

Interaction of ancestry and agency: Challenges, constraints and options for second‐generation Albanian youth relocating from Greece

AbstractThe Greek economic crisis resulted in tens of thousands of Albanian migrants returning to their home country. Amongst the returnees were many second‐generation children of the immigrants, who either returned with their families or relocated as individuals, leaving family members in Greece. Since the second generation were brought up in Greece they are not true returnees; we call their movement ‘relocation’ rather than return. Based on in‐depth interviews with 158 second‐generation ‘relocatees’ aged 18–35, we ask: How are the second generation's future aspirations in the ancestral homeland shaped by family bonds, sociocultural factors and employment and business options there? Among the themes that emerge from our analysis are issues of agency, youth mobility, economic survival, hybrid and dual identities, and feelings of belonging. In their (re)integration, relocatees face both economic and emotional challenges. Our key finding is that, despite the need to escape unemployment and loss of livelihood in Greece, the young‐adult second generation struggles to settle in Albania, above all due to what they see as the challenging sociocultural and infrastructural environment. Women, especially, bemoan the loss of freedom that they enjoyed in Greece. Most relocatees want to go back to Greece when the economic situation there improves.

Arnavutların 1934 yılında Kosova’dan Arnavutluk’a göçüne bir bakış

The paper provides detailed data on the Albanian families who moved from Kosovo to Albania during 1934, relying on the archival data of the Central Archive of Albania. Based on the researched documents, we have provided data on the migration of Albanians from Kosovo, their settlement in Albania, the families that moved to Albania, the number of members specifying them by name, surname, origin, the reason for the migration, the place where they settled, etc.

THE MIGRATION OF ALBANIANS TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - CHALLENGES AND ACHIEVEMENTS DURING THE FIRST TWO DECADES OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

<p><span>Economic, social and political conditions forced Albanians throughout the centuries to move abroad in search of a better life. Depending on time and circumstances Albanians migrated to Italy, Egypt, Turkey, Romania, etc., where they formed their communities. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a new opportunity opened to Albanians - migration to the distant continent of America, previously unknown to Albanians. Many Albanians moved and settled in the USA. Initially, they faced numerous challenges, but later adapted to their new life. In order to preserve their culture and identity, they established an Albanian community in order to maintain their ties to their homeland. The article “The migration of Albanians to the United States of America - challenges and achievements during the first two decades of the twentieth century”, aims to elaborate on the circumstances that led to the migration of Albanians, the organization of the Albanian community in the US, challenges and achievements in the field of education and culture, as well as political activity in favor of the national issue during the first two decades of the twentieth century.</span></p><p><span><strong><span>Keywords: </span></strong><span>Migration, United States, Albanians, Vatra, Fan Noli, Boston, etc.</span></span></p>

Global migration strategies: Albanian migration after 1990

Abstract The migration is a form of mobility that is carried out in many ways, in different times and different distances. In the migration process, apart from the motives, the distance and the place are important. Today, thanks to traffic systems, the migration flows tend to become more and more massive and global. Also, the culture and economy in the globalization process is distributed widely, motivating even more international migration. On the other hand, human migration can contribute to economic and cultural globalization. The migratory movements have traditionally played a very important role in developing and distributing the population all over the world. But what are the causes, consequences and strategies of Albanian migration after 1990? The used methodology consists of analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The migration of Albanians has played an important role in demographic developments in Albania after 1990 and is one of the biggest problems of the country. In these conditions, it is imperative that in all the projects and strategies that were developed for Albania, to take into account the changes and effects that the migration process brings in different spatial ranges.

An Albanian Ethnolect of Modern Greek? Testing the Waters Perceptually

Ethnolects have been defined as varieties linked to particular ethnic minorities by the minorities themselves or by other ethnic communities. The present paper investigates this association between ethnic groups and language varieties in the Greek context. I seek to answer whether there is an association made (by Albanians or Greeks) between Albanian migrants in Greece and a particular variety that is not their L1, i.e., Albanian, and if so, whether this is an Albanian ethnolect of Greek. I show experimentally that, in fact, there is a variety of Greek that is linked with listeners’ perceptions of Albanian migrants. However, that criterion is not enough in itself to designate the variety as an ethnolect as the acquisition of this variety by the second or subsequent generations of migrants is not evidenced. Rather, those generations are undergoing language shift from Albanian to Greek. Therefore, the classification of Albanian Greek as an Albanian ethnolect of Greek is not possible despite the association between the variety and the particular minority in Greece. Classification as an L2 Greek variety or a Mock Albanian Greek (MAG) variety is instead argued.

Albanian migrants’ career pathways and their responses to the challenges of the economic crisis in Italy

ABSTRACT This article explores the career pathways and work practices of Albanian labour migrants in Italy during the economic crisis. It shows how long-term migrants utilise resources accumulated from the early experiences of their (often) informal migratory pathway to address the crisis-induced structural and economic challenges. The questions we ask are: What career pathways have Albanian migrants followed while navigating the Italian labour market? What practices have they employed to respond to the challenges of the economic crisis? Through a biographical approach, we find that rather than victimising their own position, migrants have deployed different resources accumulated from the early stages of their migratory pathways, which they have combined to produce various practices of resilience, reworking and resistance against these new crisis-related challenges. Among them, return to informality and moral contract arrangements have become common practice. We argue that even though they considered informal contractual arrangements and other practices of resilience as provisional, the impact of these crisis-induced experiences is noticeable in the aftermath of the crisis as partially informal and, therefore, precarious arrangements have become established terms of employment for migrant workers. Our findings show that even permanent or naturalised migrants remain precarious and are not immune to the crisis-induced labour market restructuring.

Population Movements and Migration as a Trend: The Case of Albania

Migratory movements are part of the early history of human migration and nowadays there are still many migrations from one country to another. Albanian migration after the 1990s has attracted the attention of many different scholars and academics. According to experts, migration has become a key survival strategy but also constitutes an important feature of the Albanian economy and society. This study will investigate the reasons of migratory movements in Albania, and if the expectations of people who migrate have been met or not. Current problematics migrants might have will be analyzed, thoughts and arguments will be considered, whether they would like to stay in the destination country, or if they will try to move to another country or will return to their country of origin. Based on the data obtained, recommendations will be given to the right institutions in Albania, considering eventual measures, to avoid the permanent departure of qualified and educated individuals or to promote temporary migration, or more specifically, the circular migration. The aim of the study is to explore the relationship between employment, economic situation of families, the integration in the destination country, the achievements in the destination country and their influence on the motivation to emigrate, creating a new life away from the country of origin, as well as in the decision to stay temporarily or permanently in the country of destination or to move to a new destination country. The study focused on collecting information from the answers received from an online survey with questions about people motives to migrate, addressed to individuals from Albania who have had as their experience the phenomenon of migration. 308 people participated in the study. The study showed that the main reasons for living their country were the level of employment, the economic level of the families, the integration in the country of destination, the purpose achieved in the country of destination. The study concluded that a high percentage of respondents, mostly in EU, confirmed they have adapted to living in the destination country. They are adapted to the language of the host country, to the culture of the country of destination but without neglecting the cultural elements of the country of origin.

Albanian Migrants in Cyclades: Contact with Mental Health Services and Implications for Practice

The purpose of this study was to examine the potential differences between Albanian migrants and Greeks in the islands of Paros and Antiparos with regard to seeking help from the local public mental health service, namely the Mobile Mental Health Unit of NE Cyclades Islands (EPAPSY-NGO). The study’s instruments include the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) and a questionnaire for recording psychosocial profile data and information concerning contact with the services. The results showed that significantly less Albanian migrants contacted the mental health services in the past in comparison to Greeks. When using the service, the Albanians were more likely to see a psychiatrist in the Unit, rather than a psychologist-psychotherapist, and they more often received prescriptions for medication. There was a significantly higher dropout rate among Albanian migrants. This study highlights the different aspects of access and use of mental health services among Albanian migrants compared with native residents. Further research should focus on the factors related to early dropouts and difficulties accessing mental health services in rural areas, in order to develop more focused and effective interventions and improve the quality of care provided.

\u201cOur migrant\u201d and \u201cthe other migrant\u201d: migration discourse in the Albanian media, 2015\u20132018

The expansion of research on migration over recent decades has neglected sending and transit countries. Whether in terms of their internal development, their diaspora policy, their shift from primarily sending countries to (potential) transit or destination countries, or the issue of return migration and reintegration into home societies – all these topics deserve further exploration. This paper seeks to redress this by examining Albania, a sending country with almost a third of its population living externally, and which is recently shifting to a transit and potential destination country. Media discourse on migration was analysed, recalling its power to reflect as well as shape public opinion. Employing a quantitative approach, media discourse on migrants from 2015 to 2018 was examined. Some 55 web-based media were identified, along with twenty TV channels, 61 TV programs, and 317 articles. A qualitative analysis was then used to detect the tone of the discourse and gain a deeper understanding of the messages conveyed. Results showed that migration from the perspective of a sending country has dominated Albanian media discourse over the monitoring period. Major identified issues include: migration and demographic challenges, migration and multiculturalism in societies receiving Albanian migrants, and asylum seeking as a recent trend in Albanian emigration often standing in the way of potential Albanian EU membership. The regional migration “crisis” and the potential of Albania becoming a transit or destination country for refugees has only gained limited attention. The binary of “our migrant” versus “the other migrant” became a key distinction.

Following ties and traces of migration

The Albanian town of Gjirokastër is located 30 kilometers from the Greek border. While this proximity has inevitably contributed to directing migration flows to Greece, the focus of this article is to understand the characteristics of migration from Gjirokastër to Italy – the second destination for Albanian migrants after Greece. Findings will show how, despite its marginality, migration from Gjirokastër to Italy plays a significant role in remaking the symbolic boundaries within the social space under consideration. Based on a short period of ethnographic fieldwork undertaken in the summer of 2015, this research follows the ties and traces of migration from Gjirokastër to Italy through an experimental analysis of the town’s visual landscape and soundscape and that of the narratives which emerged from photo-elicitation sessions and face-to-face interviews with individuals related to Albanian migrants in Italy. Thanks to the analysis of both these public and private spheres, the article specifically proposes an understanding of the migration phenomenon which focuses on its transformative role within the place of origin, its categories and its hierarchies.In particular, we will see how migration to Italy may become a way to transform the status of Muslim Albanians vis-à-vis Orthodox Albanians in Gjirokastër through religious conversion to Catholicism, as well as as through the opportunities provided by learning the Italian language. In fact, both language learning and religious conversion – either before or after migration – seem to act as tools for social mobility on an individual basis. This concerns not only migrants, but also their kin and, more extensively, the local population of Gjirokastër through infrastructures (church, honorary consulate, school, etc.) indirectly linked with migration to Italy.

The Albanian Migration to Greece and the Refugee Crisis of 2015 from the Greek Perspective

Although migration has always been a timeless and volatile phenomenon, modern transnational movements of people have become a dominant topic of interest by constantly acquiring new characteristics that modify their evolutionary process. Europe is a geographical area that has been significantly affected by recent changes as a result of the evolution of migration flows of the last 30 years. The urgent need to initially understand and later implement evidence-based policies in order to sufficiently manage the migration phenomenon can be considered as the basic spark that led to the scientific blast of the 21st century, focusing on the gradual development of migration studies. One of the most notable efforts of the scientific community was the use of the comparison method to examine, understand, and in some cases even forecast the characteristics of specific migration case studies, thereby forming the backbone of comparative migration research in general. Greece, due to its geographical position, has been unintentionally positioned, many times, inside the so called “ring of fire”, as result of multiple factors and disastrous events that evolved mainly in its neighbouring countries, forcing massive, irregular migration flows to its external borders. The outbreak of the Albanian exodus in the early 1990s and the recent refugee flows of 2015 can be described as two major migration crises that have occurred in Greek’s contemporary history, making their comparison a fruitful example of the potential capabilities of the above-mentioned method, contributing to a holistic study of the migration phenomenon in Greece.

Labour market profiles of Albanian migrants in Italy: Evidence from Lombardy 2001–2015

AbstractAlbanian migration to Italy represents one of the most intense and iconic East‐West migration flows of recent decades and a paradigmatic case of intra‐Mediterranean migration. This paper uses a unique data set collected by the Lombardy region’s Observatory of Integration and Multiethnicity in 15 annual cross‐sectional surveys over the period 2001–2015. Analysis of this data set enables us to address three questions: first, what are the main factors influencing the labour market performance of Albanian migrants in Lombardy compared with other migrants? Second, what were the differential effects of the post‐2008 economic crisis on migrants’ employment stability? Third, were there any significant gender differences in labour market profiles and outcomes? Our main finding is that Albanian migrants have a lower probability of (long‐term)unemployment and irregular employment and higher probability of employment compared with other migrants, an effect that is partially attributable to the different structural composition of the Albanian migrant group.

Circular Migration and Triple Benefits: The Case of Albanian Migrants to Italy

According to the 2008 IOM Report on Migration in the World, circular migration is "the fluid movement of people between countries, including temporary or long-term movements, which can be beneficial to all entities involved, if it happens voluntarily and if it is related to the labor market needs of the countries of origin and destination.” The already 30-year experience of emigration of Albanians to Italy has shaped new models of migration. The historical migration between the two countries, as well as the long migratory experience after the fall of the communist regime, has enabled the circulation of many individuals between the two countries.The purpose of this study is to explore through the experiences of migrants moving between Albania and Italy, their contribution to themselves, as well as for the host country and that of origin. This paper is based on a combination of data obtained from secondary sources, such as: studies and research by foreign and Albanian authors, reports and literature focused mainly on circular migrants, but not only, as well as primary data obtained from direct interviews and focus groups with 15 circular migrants. Based on the perceptions generated by the migrants themselves, who participated in this study, there seems to be a threefold benefit from this migration process, despite the fact that migrants' perceptions take on different nuances in relation to these benefits that sometimes lean more towards themselves, sometimes from the host country and sometimes from the country of origin. Throughout the interviews it was noted that migrants did not know policies in support of this category, either from the host country or from the country of origin, which can be considered as an important step to be taken in the framework of interstate cooperation, to increase the triple benefit from this type of migration. Received: 2 May 2021 / Accepted: 15 June 2021 / Published: 8 July 2021

A Regretful Journey Home: Albanian Return Migration in the Wake of the Global Financial Crisis of 2008

Despite occurring almost a decade ago, the effects of the 2008 global financial crisis continue to influence the lives of many people today. Intra-European migration literature, for example, suggests that migration patterns were reshaped in its aftermath and emerging literature details mobilities and experiences of migrants in destination societies post-crisis. To date, less research documents the experiences of individuals who, in the wake of the crisis, were forced to abandon their migratory endeavours and had to navigate returning to their country of origin in a particularly challenging socio-economic context. Utilising in-depth interviews and family case studies with purposively recruited Albanian return migrants who had lived in Greece and Italy pre-crisis, the current study highlights how conditions in both destination and origin countries impacted return experiences. Findings illustrate an adverse interplay of circumstances that led to the unsettled return and portray a perturbing fluidity in the lives of return migrants who appear overcome by a sense of ‘double failure’ with regard to both outward migration and subsequent return to their country of origin.

Remittances to Albania: Before and after the COVID-19 Pandemic

This paper aims to advance an understanding of the flows of remittances resulting from Albanian migration before and after coronavirus, their impact on the country’s development and ways to mitigate the effects of the pandemic and ensure resilience of remittance families in Albania. Over the years, migrants’ remittances have played an important role in the social and economic development of Albania and Albanian families. The health emergency caused by the Covid-19 pandemic is expected to reshape our economy and could be devastating for migrants too. This pandemic is expected to change the context for international migration and potentially cause a decrease in remittances from Albanian migrants. And yet, surprisingly, there is a lack of effective mechanisms, policies, and recovery paths for increasing the positive impact of remittances on the country's development. The paper suggests that the way remittances are managed is important. Based on the context of Albania, remittances can be encouraged and facilitated through developing private-public-people partnerships, lowering costs, and using them for entrepreneurial initiatives rather than consumption. The key contributions of the paper lie in extending discussions of the value of collecting data on remittances, providing a dynamic view of the multiplicity of factors behind remittances.