Alaskan Eskimos Research Articles

Variations in the retroversion of the humeral head

It is generally accepted that the humeral head in adults is retroverted between 25° and 35°. To assess the validity of this belief, 336 dry bone specimens of humeral heads were measured. The specimens were taken from various ethnic groups: white Americans, black Americans, New Mexican Indians, northern Chinese, Alaskan Eskimos, and Negev Desert bedouins. There was significant variation in retroversion angle between specimens from different ethnic groups and even wider variation between specimens within particular groups—a finding contrary to popular belief. Retroversion angle in the specimens ranged from −8° to +74°. In addition, 50 fetal skeletons of white and black Americans were studied. The mean humeral head retroversion angle in the fetal skeletons was 78°, much greater than that in adults. It was evident that the large retroversion angle in the very young decreases with growth and that it does so to a varying extent among different ethnic groups and individuals. It is of clinical importance to understand the variations in humeral head retroversion among individuals undergoing operation and the ways in which this parameter might be manipulated to surgical advantage.

Skeletal evidence of health and disease in pre‐contact Alaskan Eskimos and Aleuts

Skeletal evidence of health and disease in pre‐contact Alaskan Eskimos and Aleuts

Evaluation of habitual activities among two Alaskan Eskimo populations based on musculoskeletal stress markers

The main objective of this study is to present inter- and intra-population similarities and differences based on musculoskeletal stress marker (MSM) data collected from two Alaskan Eskimo skeletal series, Golovin Bay and Nunivak Island. MSM data were collected from 104 individuals from Golovin Bay (males=47, females=57) and 134 from Nunivak Island (males=64, females=70). These two skeletal populations were analyzed using a visual reference system for recording MSMs on the skull, and upper and lower extremities. Results show that females of Golovin utilized certain muscles of mastication (e.g., pterygoid medialis and masseter) more than the females of Nunivak. Although it is widely held that Eskimo females chewed skins in the manufacture of footwear, ethnographic accounts indicate that Nunivak women did not routinely chew skins. This may account for the differences in craniofacial muscle use between the two groups. Other similarities and differences in MSM expression may be due in large part to unique subsistence strategies and habitual daily activities as practiced by Golovin Bay and Nunivak Island Eskimos. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Skeletal evidence of health and disease in pre-contact Alaskan Eskimos and Aleuts.

There have been relatively few paleopathological studies of arctic populations to date, compared to other regions of North America. Studies aimed at elucidating patterns of health and disease in arctic peoples prior to contact and assessing inter- and intraregional differences in disease patterns have been particularly few. In the present study, five pre-contact skeletal samples (N = 193), representing 4 Eskimo populations from northern coastal Alaska and 1 Aleut population from the eastern Aleutian Islands, were examined macroscopically for the following indicators of health status: cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, trauma, infection, dental caries, abscesses, antemortem tooth loss, periodontal disease, and dental attrition. In addition, archeological and epidemiological data were used to help reconstruct the health of these populations. The goals of the analysis were 2-fold: 1) to assess the pre-contact health of North Alaskan Eskimos and Aleuts in order to provide a baseline comparison for the post-contact health of these groups, and 2) to determine if any differences in disease patterns exist between the Eskimos and Aleuts that might be related to differences in their physical environment, subsistence patterns, and cultural practices. The analysis revealed that both groups suffered from a variety of health problems prior to contact, including iron deficiency anemia, trauma, infection, and various forms of dental pathology. Statistical comparisons of the 2 groups revealed that Eskimos and Aleuts had different patterns of health and disease prior to contact. Most notably, the Aleuts had a significantly higher frequency of cranial trauma and infracranial infection than the Eskimos, while the latter had a significantly higher frequency of enamel hypoplasia. An examination of the physical and cultural environment of the 2 groups reveals several possible explanations for these differences, including warfare, subsistence pursuits, and housing practices. The documentation of these differences indicates that variability in pre-contact disease patterns can be identified between hunter-gatherer populations living in similar environments and exhibiting similar general lifestyles.

Estimating Bowhead Whale Population Size and Rate of Increase from the 1993 Census

Estimating the population size and rate of increase of bowhead whales, Balaena mysticetus, is important because bowheads were the first species of great whale for which commerical whaling stopped and so their status indicates the recovery prospects of other great whales, and also because this information is used by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) to set the aboriginal subsistence whaling quota for Alaskan Eskimos. We describe the 1993 visual and acoustic census off Point Barrow, Alaska, which provides the best data available for estimating these quantities. We outline the definitive version of two statistical methods for estimating the population: the generalized removal method and the Bayes empirical Bayes method. The two methods give results that are close. The estimate of bowhead population size most recently accepted by the IWC Scientific Committee, 8,200 with 95% estimation interval from 7,200 to 9,400, is based on the Bayes empirical Bayes posterior distribution presented here. The Scientific Committee also accepted our estimate of the annual rate of increase of the population from 1978 to 1993. This estimate, based on the generalized removal method population estimates, is 3.2% with a 95% confidence interval (1.4%, 5.1%). This shows that bowheads are increasing at a healthy rate, indicating that stocks of great whales that have been decimated by commercial hunting can recover after it ends, even in the presence of limited aboriginal subsistence whaling.

Diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in three Alaskan Eskimo populations. The Alaska-Siberia Project.

The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) in three Alaskan Eskimo populations, using standardized diagnostic criteria, and to evaluate family history and obesity as risk factors. This cross-sectional study involved men and women > or = 25 years of age from three Eskimo ethnic groups (Siberian Yupik, Central Yupik, and Inupiat) residing in northwestern Alaska. Glucose tolerance status was defined by World Health Organization criteria and was based on a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test. Data on age, family history of diabetes, and degree of Eskimo ancestry were obtained from a personal interview. Obesity was assessed using BMI. A total of 454 of 899 (50.5%) eligible participants were examined for diabetic status (239 Siberian Yupik, 106 Central Yupik, and 109 Inupiat participants). The prevalence of diabetes was more than twice as high among the Siberian Yupik (9.6%) as among the Central Yupik (2.8%) and Inupiat participants (3.7%). Diabetes was more prevalent in women than men (8.8 vs. 4.2%). IGT was found in an additional 11.7% of the women and 4.7% of the men. The combined prevalence of diabetes and IGT in the population > or = 55 years of age was 30.4% (diabetes 12.0%, IGT 18.4%). Of the people identified with diabetes, 47% had not been previously diagnosed. Age-specific prevalences were similar to those found in U.S. whites in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey II. After adjustment for age, family history of diabetes was associated with diabetes in study participants with an odds ratio of 4.4, while obesity was associated with diabetes with an odds ratio of 2.6. These prevalences of diabetes are the highest yet reported among Eskimo populations. Obesity and family history of diabetes are associated with increased odds of developing diabetes. These data underscore the need to further examine risk factors and to design effective interventions.

Reflections on Putnam, Wright and Brains in Vats

(Putnam, and following him Crispin Wright, has 'I am a BIV' where 'Snow is white' occurs in the formulation in the text. What difference does this make? There are three points to be made. (1) Replacement of 'Snow is white' by 'I am a BIV' would make no difference to the soundness of the argument. (2) It would, however, guarantee the argument's availability for first-personal rehearsal by any philosophically knowledgeable reader of this paper, independently of the contingencies of his linguistic resources whether, that is, he be an Alaskan Eskimo or Saharan Arab. (Saharan Arabs are hereby permitted to replace 'Snow is white' throughout the text by 'Palm trees are green'.) (3) Replacement of 'Snow is white' by 'I am a brain in a vat' would enable the conclusion of the argument to be expressed as the claim that the sceptic's position is self-refuting (as, indeed, Putnam does express it), or, as Crispin Wright puts it, absaud. But, as Wright in effect notes towards the end of his paper, so long as the argument refutes the sceptic, that is enough, self-refutation is merely the icing on the cake.) (A)-(C) is an argument for the conclusion that I am not a BIV. The sceptic's claim is that I cannot know that I am not (since I cannot know this without empirical investigation hereafter 'a.p.' and cannot know it with empirical investigation). To get an argument whose conclusion is in explicit contradiction with the sceptic's claim we can restate Putnam's argument as follows:

The beta(3)-adrenergic receptor TRP64ARG polymorphism and obesity in Alaskan Eskimos.

A polymorphism in the beta 3-adrenergic receptor (beta 3-AR) has been described and consists of an amino acid substitution at position 64 where tryptophan is replaced by arginine (Arg allele). This polymorphism appears to be a modest contributor to obesity and non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), and may be dependent on gender, gene dosage, ethnic background and environmental factors. We have investigated whether the Trp64Arg polymorphism of the beta 3-AR was associated with body mass index (BMI), blood pressure or the presence of NIDDM in Alaskan Eskimos. Two hundred and fifty four Alaskan Eskimos from two distinct villages (Inupiaq and Yupik). beta 3-AR genotypes were determined by polymerase chain reaction followed by enzymatic digestion. The frequency of the Arg allele in Alaskan Eskimos was 0.38 and represents the highest Arg allele frequency in any population reported to date. 13.8% of the population were homozygous for the Arg allele, 47.6% heterozygous, and 38.6% lacked the Arg allele. However, the Arg allele was not associated with BMI, blood pressure or the presence of NIDDM in Alaskan Eskimos. These data do not support a significant role for the beta-AR Arg allele as a marker for obesity (as measured by BMI) or the presence of NIDDM in Alaskan Eskimos. It is possible that other phenotypic variables, not yet available for analysis in this population, may be associated with the presence of the Arg allele

Native Contributions To Arctic Science At Barrow, Alaska

In August 1997, the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) in Barrow, Alaska celebrated its 50th anniversary. The Lab, originally called the Arctic Research Laboratory (ARL) but renamed in 1967, is renowned for its accomplishments and contributions to the scientific understanding of the Arctic. Amidst the glory, however, there is little mention of the Inupiat (North Alaskan Eskimo) role in this scientific program. Local residents' knowledge of the arctic environment contributed to the success of both individual scientists and the facility overall. ... Therefore, I will discuss in general Inupiat assistance to arctic science from the 1940s to the present, and describe a few specific cases. ... Native participation in science at Barrow was made possible by key events, including the United States Navy's oil exploration program, interest in scientific research, and establishment of the Arctic Research Laboratory. ...

Discrepancies Between Patient Recall and the Medical Record

During a case-control study, data necessary for fulfilling diagnostic and classification criteria for spondyloarthropathy were collected from 121 patients. To study the potential impact of differences between patient recall and the medical record on diagnosis and clinical characterization of spondyloarthropathy as a model of chronic disease. The study was conducted among four Alaskan Eskimo populations served by the Alaska Native Health Service. Two sets of historical data were compiled for each subject, one acquired during the interview and the other derived from the medical record. Paired items from the interview and the medical record were analyzed to determine discrepancies and consequent effects on diagnosis, classification, and disease characterization. Significant differences were observed in the reporting of genitourinary or diarrheal illnesses preceding or associated with arthritis, the occurrence of eye inflammation in association with joint pain, the occurrence of joint pain and back pain together, and the age at onset of back pain all of which are important to the diagnosis and classification of spondyloarthropathy. In contrast, for information needed to establish the probable inflammatory nature of back pain, patient interview was more helpful than the medical records, which did not provide adequate details to differentiate inflammatory from mechanical back pain. Patient recall bias can substantially affect diagnosis and clinical assessment of chronic disease, as exemplified by spondyloarthropathy. Reliance on records alone, however, may lead to underestimation of features that require subjective appraisal by the patient.

Mother–Child Interaction Among the Alaskan Eskimos

This is an exploration of the world of the Yup'ik Eskimos, who live on the Bering seacoast in rural Alaska. The Eskimos have an ancient culture that has survived the harshest of environments. Although geographically isolated, the Eskimos have become increasingly acculturated to the Western culture. The authors studied maternal-child interaction and quality of the home environment in two remote villages and report their experiences, the Yup'ik Eskimo culture, research findings, and implications for nursing practice.

Alveolar Hydatid Disease Review of the Surgical Experience in 42 Cases of Active Disease Among Alaskan Eskimos

The authors reviewed the pathophysiology and clinical management of endemic alveolar hydatid disease in Alaskan Eskimos, incorporating recent developments in diagnosis and treatment. Alveolar hydatid disease is a highly lethal zoonotic infection caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus multilocularis. This cestode is restricted geographically to northern climates, where foxes and small rodents represent the natural hosts. Domestic dogs also may serve as definitive hosts, and thus, transmit the parasite to humans. Human infection is characterized by the development of a cancer-like hepatic mass, which may extend to adjacent structures or metastasize to distant sites. If the infection goes untreated, mortality reaches 80%. The medical records of all patients with alveolar hydatid disease diagnosed or treated at the Alaska Native Medical Center between 1951 and 1993 were reviewed. Forty-two cases of active disease are presented. Nine patients underwent resection of hepatic lesions with intent to cure, and each had a favorable result. Average post-diagnosis survival of those patients was 22 years; six still are living and free of disease. Partial resections or drainage procedures were performed in ten patients. Chemotherapy was used to augment the surgical treatment of eight patients, and four received chemotherapy alone, resulting in improved outcomes compared with historic controls. Late complications included hepatic abscess, biliary obstruction, and portal venous hypertension. Whereas alveolar hydatid disease rarely is encountered in other areas of North America, the biologic potential for spread of the disease may be increasing because of illegal importation of infected foxes to the Eastern seaboard. Therefore, the surgical community should maintain an awareness of the diagnosis and management of this potentially devastating parasitic infection.

A New Penthrite Grenade Compared to the Traditional Black Powder Grenade: Effectiveness in the Alaskan Eskimos' Hunt for Bowhead Whales

The Alaskan Eskimos catch bowhead whales of the protected Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Sea stock using old-fashioned weapons and grenades filled with black powder. Killing is sometimes a lengthy process, and in some years relatively large numbers of animals are lost. A new grenade containing the explosive penthrite was developed for the Eskimos' traditional weapons and first tested in the bowhead whale hunt in 1988, when eight whales were killed by penthrite grenades. Seven of these were landed, and one dead whale was lost. Five whales died instantaneously or within five minutes. Tissue and organ damage was inspected by post-mortem examination. Although data collected after 1988 are less reliable, the survival times recorded for animals landed up to 1992 were markedly shorter for the penthrite grenade than for the traditional black powder grenade. Median survival times were 62 minutes for whales killed by black powder grenades and 15 minutes for those killed by penthrite grenades; 21% and 45% of the animals, respectively, were recorded as dead within five minutes, and 32% and 19% respectively, were lost. The penthrite grenade is likely to become a highly effective weapon for the bowhead whale hunt, although further modification and testing will be needed before large-scale use. An educational and training programme for all prospective users should also be arranged. The possibility of improving other catch equipment to reduce whale loss should also be considered.Key words: bowhead whale, Balaena mysticetus, Eskimo traditional subsistence hunt, Alaska, hunting method, black powder grenade, penthrite grenade

Metachromatic leukodystrophy among southern Alaskan Eskimos: molecular and genetic studies.

Metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD) is an autosomal recessive disorder resulting from the inability to metabolize sulphatide, an important component of myelin. Although there is significant clinical variability between patients, most have the late-infantile form. It is one of the most common lysosomal disorders involving mental deterioration and is found throughout the world. The great majority of the cases have a deficiency of arylsulphatase A activity. Accurate diagnosis of MLD is complicated by the presence of so-called pseudodeficiency alleles and the need to receive specimens for biochemical testing within 24-48 h of collection. We report the identification of the mutation (a g-to-a transition in the first nucleotide of intron 4) in the arylsulphatase A gene causing late-infantile MLD among the Eskimo population of southern Alaska. As all patients and family members from living and deceased patients had the same mutation, a mutation-based test was developed to identify patients and carriers that can be done on dried blood spots sent via regular mail service. A possible genetic link between this population and the Navajo Indians of the southwestern United States is proposed.

Elevated concentrations of plasma ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids among Alaskan Eskimos

Eskimos living in rural southwestern Alaska depend on fish and marine mammals as major sources of subsistence food. Fatty acid concentrations in 80 Yupik Eskimos living in either a coastal or river village of southwestern Alaska were compared with those of non-Native control subjects. Concentrations of total plasma omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5 omega-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 omega-3) were 4.3, 13, and 6.8 times higher, respectively, in Native participants than in non-Native control subjects. Concentrations of these fatty acids were higher in coastal-village than in river-village participants; concentrations paralleled consumption of marine mammal oil and marine fish. The ratios of eicosapentaenoic to arachidonic acid for adult coastal- and river-village participants were 1.16 and 0.70, respectively, 14 and 9 times those of non-Native adults, respectively. There was no increase in the mean bleeding times of Native participants of either village.

Frequency of Killer Whale (<i>Orcinus Orca</i>) Attacks and Ship Collisions Based on Scarring on Bowhead Whales (<i>Balaena Mysticetus</i>) of the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas Stock

Bowhead whales of the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas stock harvested by Alaskan Eskimos were examined for scars from killer whale and ship-collision injuries. We estimated that the frequency of scars from killer whale attacks ranged from 4.1% to 7.9% (depending on our confidence that the whale was properly examined) while about 1% exhibited scars from ship collisions. The frequency of killer whale scars was considerably lower than for bowhead whales of the Davis Strait stock and for other baleen whales where data are available, and was significantly lower (P<0.05) for whales <13 m. Patterns of both types of scars were quite similar to those reported for other cretacean species. Spaces between rake marks were within the range of interdental measurements from four killer whale skulls. The occurrence of attempted killer whale predation and ship strikes inferred from scars has not prevented the BCBS stock from increasing. Key words: bowhead whale, killer whale, Alaskan Eskimos, whaling, scarring, ship/whale collision, propeller injury

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and undifferentiated carcinoma of the parotid gland in Caucasian patients.

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has been detected in certain types of lymphoma and some epithelial neoplasms such as nasopharyngeal lymphoepithelioma and occasional undifferentiated carcinomas in several organs including the salivary glands. However, clonal EBV genomes have been detected in undifferentiated carcinomas of the parotid gland exclusively in Alaskan natives and Eskimos, both groups being at the highest risk for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. The authors investigated the possibility that EBV may be present in undifferentiated parotid carcinomas in Caucasian subjects. To test this hypothesis, in situ hybridization (ISH) technique with biotinylated EBV-DNA probes was utilized on routinely processed, paraffin-embedded tissues from 7 cases of undifferentiated carcinomas of the parotid gland. EBV genomes were demonstrated in the cytoplasm of tumor cells from 3 out of 7 specimens tested. Surprisingly, EBV genomes were found in 3 out of 5 (60%) undifferentiated carcinomas that had developed in patients with a history of a long-persisting asymptomatic parotid mass, which had suddenly increased in size. Conversely, none of the undifferentiated carcinomas with continuous and rapid growth studied was found to be positive for EBV-DNA by ISH technique. Taken together, these data might suggest a possible role of EBV in the transformation of benign parotid gland lesions into malignant and aggressive undifferentiated carcinoma of the parotid gland, the so-called carcinoma expleomorphic adenoma.

Sexual dimorphism in relation to big‐game hunting and economy in modern human populations

Postcranial skeletal data from two recent Eskimo populations are used to test David Frayer's model of sexual dimorphism reduction in Europe between the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic. Frayer argued that a change from big-game hunting and adoption of new technology in the Mesolithic reduced selection for large body size in males and led to a reduction in skeletal sexual dimorphism. Though aspects of Frayer's work have been criticized in the literature, the association of big-game hunting and high sexual dimorphism is untested. This study employs univariate and multivariate analysis to test that association by examining sexual dimorphism of cranial and postcranial bones of two recent Alaskan Eskimo populations, one being big-game (whale and other large marine mammal) hunting people, and the second being salmon fishing, riverine people. While big-game hunting influences skeletal robusticity, it cannot be said to lead to greater sexual dimorphism generally. The two populations had different relative sexual dimorphism levels for different parts of the body. Notably, the big-game hunting (whaling) Eskimos had the lower multivariate dimorphism in the humerus, which could be expected to be the structure under greatest exertion by such hunting in males. While the exertions of the whale hunting economic activities led to high skeletal robusticity, as predicted by Frayer's model, this was true of the females as well as the males, resulting in low sexual dimorphism in some features. Females are half the sexual dimorphism equation, and they cannot be seen as constants in any model of economic behavior.

Evaluation of the European Spondylarthropathy Study Group preliminary classification criteria in Alaskan Eskimo populations.

To evaluate the preliminary classification criteria proposed by the European Spondylarthropathy Study Group (ESSG) in Alaskan Eskimo populations. We examined, interviewed, and reviewed the records of 104 Eskimo patients with spondylarthropathy and 75 with other rheumatic disorders, and evaluated them according to the proposed criteria. We found an overall sensitivity of 88.5% and a specificity of 89.3%, which is similar to the reported values in European populations. The ESSG criteria performed well in a population very different from that in which they were developed, and deserve further evaluation as a much-needed and useful epidemiologic tool.

SURFACE MORPHOLOGY OF THE FOREBRAIN OF THE BOWHEAD WHALE, BALAENA MYSTICETUS

AbstractObservations were made on 11 brains from bowhead whales subsistence‐harvested by Alaskan Eskimos under International Whaling Commission guidelines. This study is part of a larger project to determine the basic morphology of this endangered species. The bowhead brain is similar to other cetacean brains, particularly that of the southern right whale. Long olfactory peduncles are reflected upon the rostrodorsal surface of the cerebral hemispheres. Olfactory bulbs have not been recovered but are presumed to exist since nerve fibers have been identified histologically in the olfactory peduncles. The induseum griseum is evident on the corpus callosum. The hippocampus proper is small but protrudes into the lateral ventricle. The cruciate sulcus runs diagonally across the rostral surface, limiting a small frontal lobe. The structure of the floor of the sylvian fissure varies from a few short gyri radiating toward the circular sulcus to a more extensive and complex two‐tiered arrangement including numerous gyri perpendicular to the gyrus bordering the paleocortex. Pineal‐body‐like tissue was present in one specimen. There is no interthalamic adhesion. The lateral geniculate body is elevated but smaller than the large medial geniculate body. The neurohypophysis was adherent on most brain specimens received.