Al-Mg Alloy Research Articles

Machine Learning-Based Precise Monitoring of Aluminium-Magnesium Alloy Dust

： Al-Mg alloys are widely used in industrial production, which can lead to occupational health issues and explosion hazards. The study focuses on applying a machine learning-enhanced Kalman filtering algorithm to detect the concentration of Al-Mg alloy dust, significantly reducing dust hazards and constructing an efficient and safe dust reduction and removal system. A machine learning-based Kalman filter algorithm is proposed for fast and accurate detection of high Al-Mg dust concentrations (200-1200 g/m³). The results show that the KFGRU approach outperforms the traditional line filter method, achieving answer times between 2.6 s and 6 s—an improvement of 62.5% over the traditional method. As far as the forecast accuracy is concerned, the KFGRU method yields a minimal curve deviation value, reaching as low as 0.097, which represents a significant improvement compared to the 0.151 of the Kalman filter algorithm, the 0.217 of the sliding average method, and the 0.177 of the median filter methods.

Al-Mg electrodeposition using chloride-based molten salts

Al-Mg alloys were potentiostatically electrodeposited from electrolyte with AlCl3, NaCl, KCl and MgCl2 at 180 °C for aircraft applications. The electrode setup includes a Cu cathode, Pt-mesh anode, and Al-rod pseudo-reference electrode. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) reveals the Al deposition sources as Al2Cl7-and AlCl4-. The Mg deposition source can be a reaction between Al2Cl7- and MgCl2 and MgCl2 dissociation (both releasing Mg2+). Depositions at over­poten­tials: -1.03, -1.05, -1.06, and -1.10 V show current density-time curves with almost steady-state j, indicating planar diffusional growth. This is confirmed by layer-like morphologies with near-globular growth features. The average feature size decreases to -1.06 V and increases slightly at -1.10 V due to further deposition over the existing features. The deposit composition (Mg content) increases from 0.36 to 5.68 at.% from -1.03 to -1.10 V. Such a wide range of Mg content is obtained through minimal compositional changes in spent electrolytes, indicating the ease of less-noble Mg deposition. Al-Mg deposition scheme is devised with Al and Mg deposition perceived as Al3+ + 3e- Al and Mg2+ + 2e- Mg; and 2Cl- Cl2(↑)+ 2e- supplying electrons for deposition.

Effect of Annealing Time on Grain Structure Evolution and Superplastic Response of Al-Mg 5xxx Alloys

The impact of annealing on the recrystallized grain structure and superplastic behavior of two Al-Mg 5xxx alloys used for high-speed blow forming (HSBF) was studied. The results revealed that both alloys demonstrated rapid static recrystallization after only a few minutes of annealing at 520 °C, forming fine and equiaxed grain structures. After four min of annealing, Alloy 2 (Al-4.0Mg-1.18Mn) exhibited a higher fraction of small grains (<10 µm) compared to Alloy 1 (Al-4.5Mg-0.74Mn). Moreover, Alloy 2 displayed enhanced resistance to grain coarsening with increasing annealing times, which was attributed to its higher amount of Al6(Mn,Fe) intermetallic particles and a higher number density of Mn dispersoids. Optimizing the annealing time can effectively develop a fine and stable grain structure in Al-Mg 5xxx alloys. During tensile deformation, Alloy 2 consistently showed higher ductility compared to Alloy 1 at low strain rates (170% vs. 138% at 0.001 s−1 and 163% vs. 134% at 0.01 s−1), whereas at a high strain rate of 1 s−1, both alloys displayed comparable tensile elongation. The high superplastic response of Alloy 2 at low strain rates renders it a superior superplastic alloy for HSBF applications.

In-situ investigation on tensile deformation behavior of hybrid hot-rolled wire arc additive manufactured Al-Mg alloys

Hybrid hot rolling and wire arc additive manufacturing (HR-WAAM) are becoming an effective way for enhancing both tensile strength and plasticity in Al-Mg alloys. This work systematically studies the microstructural evolution and strengthening mechanisms of HRAM Al-Mg alloys during the stretching process. The results show that interlayer hot rolling can effectively refine grains, reduce defects, and promote uniform precipitation of second phases. Within a lower strain range, uniformly distributed fine grains help prevent the formation of high geometrically necessary dislocation (GND) density in localized areas, thereby reducing local stress concentration. With a higher strain range, this microstructure can promote coordinated grain transformation towards softer orientations, reduce local microstructure work hardening, and allow GND to develop within a broader range of plastic deformation, thereby exhibiting excellent strain coordination ability. These factors collectively contribute to the improved strength and ductility of the material. Compared with traditional WAAM samples, the yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation of HRAM samples have increased by 18 MPa, 92 MPa, and 11 %, respectively. Consequently, this study provides new insights and a theoretical foundation for advancing additive manufacturing technology in the production of high-performance Al-Mg alloys.

A thermodynamic based constitutive model considering the mutual influence of multiple physical fields

In multiple physical fields, the mutual influence among these fields can significantly impact material elastoplasticity. This paper proposes a thermodynamic-based constitutive model that incorporates the mutual influence of multiple physical fields. Rather than treating physical field characteristics as adjustable “parameters” affecting material coefficients, the proposed model employs a thermodynamic dissipation potential derived from the Onsager reciprocity relations, accounting for thermodynamic forces coupling. This dissipation potential ensures that the thermodynamic flow in the stress field is influenced by both stress field and other physical fields thermodynamic forces, which describes the plastic flow under multiple physical fields, while preserving thermodynamic duality. The paper begins with the formulation of a generalized thermodynamic model applicable to diverse materials and types of coupled fields, which is then degraded to a specific model for AA5182-O AlMg alloy under the influence of temperature and strain rate fields coupling. Given the universal applicability of the generalized model, such degradation provides a structured approach framework for developing thermodynamics-based constitutive models. For different materials encountered in practical engineering, new thermodynamic forces can be introduced to describe their unique mechanical properties while preserving the overarching thermodynamics-based model framework, thereby facilitating model scalability. The paper concludes with a validation example, showing that within the Portevin-Le Chatelie (PLC) regime, the plastic flow stress of AA5182-O AlMg alloy decreases with increasing strain rate at low temperatures but increases at high temperatures. The accurate simulation of these distinct strain rate effects crucially relies on integrating the mutual influence of temperature field and strain rate field.

The Influence of Er and Zr on the Microstructure and Durability of the Mechanical Properties of an Al-Mg Alloy Containing 7 wt.% of Mg.

Al-Mg alloys are characterized by permanent solid solution hardening and can additionally be work-hardened. The high mechanical properties of Al-Mg alloys with above-standard Mg content obtained after plastic deformation processes decrease over time. The addition of minor alloying elements like Er or Zr is an alternative method to improve the durability of mechanical properties and increase the strength of Al-Mg alloys due to densely and evenly distributed dispersoids being formed. In this paper, Al-Mg alloys with above-standard Mg content (7 wt.%) and Zr and Er micro-alloying elements and their influence on the microstructure and durability of the mechanical properties were examined. The cast ingots of AlMg7 alloys were characterized by a smooth surface without cracks. The plastic deformation process in a static compression test resulted in an about 60 HBW increase in the Brinell hardness of all the deformed alloys relative to casting. It was revealed that the addition of Er and Zr significantly improved the mechanical properties and durability of the mechanical properties of the Al-Mg after annealing. The addition of Er or Zr slightly restrained the decrease in the Brinell hardness after annealing but did not inhibit it.

Revolutionizing Battery Longevity by Optimising Magnesium Alloy Anodes Performance

This research explores the enhancement of electrochemical performance in magnesium batteries by optimising magnesium alloy anodes, explicitly focusing on Mg-Al and Mg-Ag alloys. The study’s objective was to determine the impact of alloy composition on anode voltage stability and overall battery efficiency, particularly under extended cycling conditions. The research assessed the anodes’ voltage behaviour and internal resistance across magnesium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (Mg(TFSI)2) electrolyte formulations using a systematic setup involving cyclic voltammetry on the anode and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The Mg-Al alloy demonstrated superior performance, with minimal voltage drop and lower resistance increase than the Mg-Ag alloy. The results showed that the Mg-Al alloy maintained over 85% energy efficiency after 100 cycles, significantly outperforming the Mg-Ag alloy, which exhibited increased degradation and efficiency reduction to approximately 80%. These findings confirm that incorporating aluminium into magnesium anodes stabilises the anode voltage and enhances the overall battery efficiency by mitigating degradation mechanisms. Consequently, the Mg-Al alloy is identified as an up-and-coming candidate for use in advanced battery technologies, offering energy density and cycle life improvements. This study lays the groundwork for future research to refine magnesium alloy compositions further to boost battery performance.

An Analytical Study for Explosive Grain Initiation

The most common form of solidification of metals is heterogeneous nucleation, in which the particles, regardless of whether they are endogenous or exogenous, nucleate the primary crystal phase, becoming solid crystal particles and, subsequently, initiating into grains during solidification. Explosive grain initiation has been proposed recently for these particles, which have significant nucleation undercooling, in which once nucleation happens, a certain number of solid particles can initiate into grains simultaneously, resulting in recalescence. This is a different form of grain initiation and has high potential for more significant grain refinement in casting alloys. In this work, an analytical model is designed to describe explosive grain initiation, based on which the criteria for the three different grain initiation forms, explosive grain initiation (EGI), hybrid grain initiation (HGI), and progressive grain initiation (PGI), are derived. These criteria are employed to develop a grain initiation map for the Mg-Al alloy system inoculated with nucleant particles having a log-normal size distribution. This work can not only help us to understand the effect of each condition, such as the cooling rate and the solute concentration, on grain initiation behaviors, but also predict the grain size for alloy systems with relatively impotent nucleant particles during solidification.

Wire-based friction stir additive manufacturing towards isotropic high-strength-ductility Al-Mg alloys

ABSTRACT The formation of eutectic Al-Mg2Al3 phases along the grain boundaries makes it difficult to improve the mechanical properties of high-magnesium-content aluminum alloys. Here, wire-based friction stir additive manufacturing(W-FSAM) was proposed as a novel solid-state additive manufacturing technology. The shearing, transport, and thermo-plasticisation processes of the deposited materials were achieved by a rotational tool and a stationary barrel. The original Mg2Al3 phases were refined and dissolved into the matrix and formed supersaturated solid solution structures. The refined grains with a diameter of 1.27 ± 0.64 μm were achieved through the dynamic recrystallization process. The components achieved isotropic mechanical properties due to the homogeneous equiaxed fine-grain structure. The ultimate tensile strength reached 415 ± 11 MPa with an elongation of 31.0 ± 2.0%, superior to the commercial 5xxx products. The enhanced strain hardening capacity was achieved by the suppressed emission of dislocations from grain boundaries and the interaction between the supersaturated solid solute atoms and mobile dislocation.

Study on the investigation of creep behaviour in squeeze cast Ca-modified AZ91 magnesium alloy

ABSTRACT The AZ91 (Mg-Al) alloy is the most commonly used Mg-cast alloy with high specific strength and excellent die-castability; however, its poor creep performance limits its applications at elevated temperatures. In the present investigation, the effect of Ca addition on the microstructure development and creep performance of squeeze-cast AZ91 alloy recognised as AZX911 alloy has been investigated at 150°C–250°C temperature under 65 and 80 MPa stress. The addition of Ca in the AZ91 alloy results in the precipitation of the thermally stable Al2Ca intermetallic phase, which partially suppresses the precipitation of the thermally unstable β-Mg17Al12 phase and significantly improves the creep resistance of the AZ91 Mg alloy. The governing creep mechanism of AZX911 alloy is found to follow power law creep with n = 3.49 at 150°C that mainly results from dislocation climb. In contrast, a transition to power-law breakdown is observed at 175°C. The resistance to creep deformation of AZX911 further improves with heat treatment at 450°C as compared to the as-cast specimen of the same alloy due to the complete dissolution of the β-Mg17Al12 phase. The activation energy of phase dissolution, estimated using the Kissinger method, is found to be higher (923 kJ/mol) for the Al2Ca intermetallic phase as compared to that for β-Mg17Al12 phase (664 kJ/mol) in AZX911 alloy.

Pore coarsening mechanism during hot rolling induced by hydrogen gathering in Al-Mg alloy

A novel mechanism for pore coarsening during hot rolling was proposed that the hydrogen in the ingot, driven by non-uniform hydrostatic pressure, accumulates into the tortuous shrinkage cavities at the thickness center of the slab. High pressure hydrogen gas gradually changes the stomatal curvature and finally leads to pore coarsening.

Temperature-modulated dilatometry as tool for studying precipitation kinetics: Case example Al-Mg

Temperature-modulated dilatometry is implemented as a tool for studying phase equilibration processes in alloys. The potential of this method is demonstrated using a two-phase Al-Mg alloy consisting of the saturated solid solution Al(Mg) and intermetallic Al3Mg2. The relative length change upon sinusoidal temperature modulation around 380∘C with amplitude of 6∘C is monitored for different modulation periods between 1 h and 8 h. The temperature modulation and the thereby varying solubility of Mg in Al imposes a modulation of the relative fractions of the two phases, which can sensitively be detected by dilatometry owing to the different atomic volumes of the two phases. The phase equilibration process causes a characteristic phase lag of the periodic length variation with respect to the temperature modulation. From the variation of the phase shift with the modulation frequency, a reaction rate of k = 1.85 × 10−4 s−1 for the equilibration of the phase equilibrium can be deduced in the framework of a simple kinetic model. This value is in quantitative agreement with the kinetics expected for an equilibration process that is controlled by the diffusion of Mg in Al upon modulation-induced growth or shrinkage of the intermetallic Al3Mg2-phase.

Strengthening effects from Mg and Ni in Al-mischmetal eutectic alloys: Insights from microstructures and Bayesian analysis

This study investigates, both experimentally and via machine-learning modeling, the strengthening mechanisms and effects of Mg and Ni additions to Al-MM (mischmetal, a sustainable Ce+La+Nd mixture to replace Ce) alloys, aiming to develop creep- and coarsening-resistant Al-MM-Mg-Ni alloys with a focus on twin eutectic co-solidification microstructures. Based on near-eutectic Al-9MM (wt%) alloy, the Mg and Ni additions introduce solid-solution and eutectic strengthening, respectively. Ternary hypo-eutectic Al-9MM-0.25/0.5/0.75Mg variants improve hardness up to 592 MPa. Ternary Al-9MM-2/4Ni display hypo-eutectic microstructures. Al-9MM-2Ni shows separated growth of Al11MM3 and Al3Ni eutectic phases, while Al-9MM-4Ni features finely intertwined Al11MM3-Al3Ni fibers from co-solidification. The hyper-eutectic Al-9MM-5Ni contains primary Al3Ni particles alongside the intertwined fibers, raising the hardness to 739 MPa. Finally, quaternary Al-9MM-0.5/0.75Mg-4/4.5Ni alloys maintain hypo-eutectic microstructures with a significant increase of hardness to 929 MPa. The series Al-9MM, Al-9MM-0.75Mg, Al-9MM-4Ni, and Al-9MM-4.5Ni-0.75Mg exhibits increasing tensile yield strengths of 70, 83, 88, and 105 MPa, with decreasing ductility of 12.0, 5.8, 2.0, and 0.8 %. All Al-9MM-Mg-Ni alloys exhibit excellent hardness retention and coarsening resistance after thermal exposure at 300 or 350°C for up to 11 weeks. A machine-learning model accurately predicts the alloy's hardness evolution under thermal exposure. Feature analysis quantitively shows the strengthening impact of MM, Ni, and Mg addition and demonstrate enhanced strengthening retention, under thermal exposure, of Al11MM3 over Al3Ni, alongside the beneficial effects of Mg homogenization. At 300 °C, Al-9MM-Mg-Ni alloys demonstrate higher creep resistance than most precipitation-strengthened Al-Sc-Zr-based alloys and solid-solution-strengthened Al-Mg alloys, with Al-9MM-4Ni as the best performer.

Surface Structure Formation in Plasma Cutting of Aluminum and Titanium Alloys Using Direct Current Straight and Reverse Polarity

Abstract The structural features and phase composition are examined in near-surface layers of specimens of Al-Mg, Al-Cu-Mg alloys and commercially pure titanium obtained by plasma cutting using direct current straight polarity (DCSP) and direct current reverse polarity (DCRP). It is found that the flows of molten metal ejected by the gas stream from the cut cavity during cutting form the fusion and heat-affected zones, whose structural morphology, phase composition, and thickness depend on both the selected material and the cutting mode. The fusion zone is thicker in specimens cut using DCRP than in those cut with DCSP. The thickness of the adjacent heat-affected zone is also the largest in the mode that provides a thicker fused layer. Aluminum alloy specimens cut in ambient air are characterized by the presence of oxygen in the near-surface layers. The lowest degree of oxidation is observed in Al-Mg alloy. Oxygen penetrates into the fused layer to a depth of 350–500 μm in Al-Cu-Mg and up to 200–250 μm in Al-Mg alloy. In titanium alloy, the thickness of oxide layers does not exceed 100–150 μm during straight polarity cutting and 200–250 μm during reverse polarity cutting. A thin brittle layer of TiO and TiO2 oxides is formed on the titanium alloy surface. It is shown that the generation of “water mist” around the plasma jet when cutting materials of all types with DCRP leads to a more intensive oxidation of metal, less thermal effect on the material, and reduced roughness of the cut face.

Influence of 3D Structural Design on the Electrochemical Performance of Aluminum Metal as Negative Electrode for Li-Ion Batteries.

Aluminum (Al) is one of the most promising active materials for producing next-generation negative electrodes for lithium (Li)-ion batteries. It features low density, high specific capacity, and low working potential, making it ideal for producing energy-dense cells. However, this material loses its electrochemical activity within 100 cycles, making it practically unusable. Several claims in the literature support the idea that a dual degradation mechanism is at play. First, the slow diffusion of Li in the Al matrix causes the electrochemical reactions to be partly irreversible, making the initial capacity of the cell drop. Second, the stress caused by cycling make the active material pulverize and lose activity. Recent work shows that shortening the diffusion path of Li by 3D structuring is an effective way to mitigate the first capacity loss mechanism, while alloying Al with other elements effectively mitigates the second one. In this work, we demonstrate that the benefits of 3D structuring and alloying are cumulative and that a mesh made of an Al-magnesium alloy performs better than both a pure Al foil and a foil of an Al-Mg alloy.

Microstructural refinement of an Al-Ce-Mg alloy via Shear Assisted Processing and Extrusion

Al-Ce alloys have attracted recent interest because of their high thermal stability due to the low solubility of Ce in the Al matrix. The Al11Ce3 eutectic phase gives excellent strain hardening behavior and moderate high-temperature strength in the as-cast state. However, its strengthening effect is limited by its coarse as-cast structure. Therefore, alternative manufacturing methods such as additive manufacturing or equal channel angular pressing have been applied to refine the Al11Ce3 phase to good effect. However, these techniques are both expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, this study aims to use Shear Assisted Processing and Extrusion (ShAPE), an emerging solid phase processing technique that is more easily scalable than the previously mentioned methods. ShAPE can produce useful cross-sections of an Al-8Ce-4Mg alloy while refining the Al11Ce3 phase to produce a higher strength material. It was found that a low temperature ShAPE process can improve the room temperature yield strength by ∼60 % compared to a binary Al-4Mg alloy. Additionally, the high-temperature yield strength of the Al-Ce alloys increased by 20 %, with a simultaneous 15 % improvement in ductility compared to the binary Al-Mg alloy. These results highlight the potential for ShAPE as a processing technique for Al-Ce alloys.

Atomistic insight into structure and properties of oxide films formed upon oxidation of Al–Mg alloys – reactive molecular dynamics study

Oxidation phenomena on metal surfaces can be advanced using atomistic modeling for the study of the structure and properties of the growing oxide films. Molecular dynamics investigations were performed to study thermal oxidation of single-crystal and polycrystalline Al–Mg alloys with low Mg content of up to 2.5 at. %. Structure, topological atom network and surface topography of the oxide films grown on Al–Mg surfaces at 300, 475 and 663 K are determined. Mg-content and temperature dependent oxide films developed on Al-Mg alloy substrates with two-phase oxide film formation as also confirmed experimentally. It is related with a gradual long-range order formation above 475 K for (Al,Mg)-oxide films, for which solid amorphous phase predominates over crystalline phase. The 1.12-nm-thick oxide films grown at 300 K are fully amorphous and build up from (Al, Mg)-oxide which the Al2O3 dominates. Increase of Mg coefficient confirms faster Mg diffusion to oxide/alloy interface at high oxidation temperature and the formation of MgO-like network. The presence of planar crystal defect (grain boundary, GB) into Al-Mg alloy substrate governs the kinetics of oxide film growth and its structure evolution. GB also compensate internal stresses during oxide film growth. Obtained results are in good agreement with experimental observations.

Strong and stable ultrafine-grained Al-Mg alloys via polymer-derived in situ nanoparticles

Ultrafine-grained Al-Mg alloys provide immense promise as lightweight metallic materials for load-bearing applications, contributing significantly to energy efficiency and CO2 emission reduction. However, for prevalent bulk ultrafine-grained Al-Mg alloys fabricated by a combined mechanical alloying and thermomechanical consolidation, the presence of remaining polymers, which are used as a process control agent during milling, jeopardizes the mechanical performance of the consolidated materials and thus significantly limit their broad applications. An ideal solution to overcome this critical issue is to turn these polymers into useful nanoparticles, enabling simultaneous improvements in strength and grain size stability. In this study, we present an approach to currently achieve strength enhancement and grain size control by incorporating polymer-derived in situ nanoparticles. Through a combined process involving polymer-assisted mechanical alloying, extrusion at the eutectic temperature, and annealing-driven solid-state phase transformation, we achieved a strong and stable ultrafine-grained Al-Mg alloy. After post-heat treatment at 440 °C (i.e. 0.76 Tm; Tm is the absolute melting temperature of pure Al) for 24 h, the compressive yield strength exhibited minimal reduction from ∼1.3 GPa for the as-extruded alloy to ∼1 GPa for the as-annealed alloy. Similarly, the average grain size only experienced a slight increase, from 106 to 145 nm after post-annealing. These findings offer practical insights into the design of mechanically robust and thermodynamically stable ultrafine-grained metallic materials via a new strategy of polymer-derived in situ nanoparticles.

Understanding the relationship between structural and dynamic properties in binary Mg-Al metallic liquids from molecular dynamics simulations

The structure and dynamics of the Mg-Al alloy for the different compositions were investigated using the embedded atom method (EAM) of molecular dynamics modeling. The results found that the icosahedral-like, mixed, and crystal-like increases with the temperature during the cooling process. When the temperature reaches the glass transition temperature (Tg) the last two types of clusters decrease with the temperature. The temperature Tg was determined using the Wendt-Abraham parameter, which found that it increases with increases in the fraction of Al. Investigations also revealed that the activation energy (Ea) decreases at higher temperatures and increases at temperatures below Tg. Additionally, viscosity was computed using the Vogel–Fulcher–Tammann (VFT) equation, showing a decrease in temperature in the supercooled liquid state. Moreover, an increase in the fraction of Al resulted in reduced fragility of the liquids.

Cross-rolling induced texture randomization and structural evolution for improved plastic isotropy in Al-Mg alloys with high Mg content

Plastic anisotropy is a key factor that affects the formability and performance of Al-Mg alloys. In this study, the effects of Mg content and strain path shifting from unidirectional rolling (UDR) to cross rolling processes (CR) on plastic anisotropy in Al-Mg alloys were investigated. Al-6 and 9Mg alloys were heat-treated and rolled in two different ways: the first was a UDR process, and the other was a CR process at room temperature. The rolled specimens were analyzed by electron backscattered diffraction method and tensile test. High Mg content suppresses the formation of texture that strengthens the plastic anisotropy in both UDR and CR processes. CR significantly reduces the rolling texture area fraction, leading to greater texture randomness compared to UDR. CR promotes the formation of low-angle deformation bands, which low-angle bands appear to have a weaker impact on deformation resistance and may contribute to the reduced anisotropy in CR-processed materials. CR results in a more uniform distribution of stored energy. R-value which represents plastic anisotropy decreases by shifting from UDR to CR, and by increment of Mg content. Overall, this study demonstrates that CR is a promising approach for improving the formability and performance of Al-Mg alloys by effectively controlling plastic anisotropy.