Steel AISI Research Articles

Intercomparison of Indexable Cutting Inserts' Wear Progress and Chip Formation During Machining Hardened Steel AISI 4337 and Austenitic Stainless Steel AISI 316 L.

This article deals with a mutual comparison of indexable cutting inserts of the CNMG 120408 type from two different manufacturers during the machining of hardened steel AISI 4337 and austenitic stainless steel AISI 316 L. The main goal is to analyse the different wear processes depending on the difference in the manufacturer's design and also depending on the properties of the different machined materials. The progress of the wear of the main spine of the tool, the types of wear and the service life of the cutting edge were monitored, with the achievement of the critical value VBmax = 300 µm being the standard. In addition to the wear of the inserts, the production of chips was monitored in terms of their shape, average size and number of chips per 100 g of chips produced. In order to understand the relationships arising from the obtained data, an SEM equipped with an elemental analyser was used to analyse the coating layers and the substrate of the unworn inserts and the types of wear and the intensity of the surface damage of the worn inserts. A several-fold difference in the lifetime of the cutting edge was found, both in terms of design and in terms of the selected machined material, while in both cases the cutting edge with Al2O3 and TiCN layers of half thickness achieved a better result in liveness. From the point of view of chip formation, very similar results in shape and average length were observed despite the different designs of chip breakers. Cutting inserts with half the thickness of the coating layers achieved longer cutting edge life in the non-primary material application compared to the target workpiece material. At the same time, it was observed that a thinner coating layer has a positive effect on chip formation in terms of its length and shape.

Experimental and numerical analysis on the cutting force, cutting temperature, and tool wear of alloy steel (4340) during turning process

This paper focuses primarily on the wear behavior observed in AISI4340 steel when machining with a multi-layered coated carbide tool. Numerical and experimental examination is processed out to predict the wear performance of AISI 4340 steel along with its cutting force and temperature. In this process, four layers of different coated material are bonded together to form a multi-layered coated carbide tool. The coated thickness is assessed with the assistance of a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Experimental analysis takes place with a heavy duty lathe machine equipped with an infrared thermometer and force dynamometer. Simulation is performed using DEFORM-2D software to simulate cutting forces and interface temperature, and the output results obtained have been compared with the experimental work. With the help of the SEM image, maximum crater wear depth is evaluated and analyzed. Feed plays a crucial role in increasing the chip interface temperature and cutting force. For varied feed rates, the cutting tool edge radius, depth of cut, and cutting speed are taken as the input parameters. The proposed 2D finite element model provides effective parameter values for reducing wear. Results measured indicate that the output parameter values of interface temperature and cutting force obtained from simulation and experimental investigation match each other with high accuracy. Simulation results for temperature distribution around the tool tip show that a maximum temperature of 654 °C is formed at the feed rate of 0.4 mm/rev, leading to high heat flux. For the feed rate of 0.3 and 0.2 mm/rev, there is not much deviation in heat flux around the tool tip. The maximum temperature around the tool tip is near 527 °C for both 0.3 and 0.2 mm/rev. Simulation results show that the lowest tool wear of 0.001 23 mm was obtained for a feed rate of 0.2 mm/rev, followed by 0.004 25 (0.1 mm/rev), 0.005 09 mm (0.4 mm/rev), and 0.007 14 mm/rev.

Static and Thermal Analysis of Internal Combustion Engine Valves

Abstract: In this paper the 3D model of the internal combustion engine valves was realized using Autodesk Inventor Professional 2024 and finite element analysis, static and thermal was performed, in order to determine the state of stress, deformation and temperature evolution, by applying restrictions and loads conditions. Two materials were chosen, for internal combustion engine valves, in accordance with the specialized literature. The materials taken for static and thermal analysis was Stainless Steel AISI 446 and NiCr0TiAl. Following the comparative study for the two models, it can be specified the importance of the material for the construction of the internal combustion engine valves who depends on the material properties and their design.

In-situ reaction-generation self-healing superior antioxidation layer induced by Al-Y sol-gel film on the AISI304 steel

In this study, an Al-Y sol-gel film is prepared on the AISI304 steel and its effect on the high temperature oxidation resistance is evaluated by the cycle oxidation at 900 ℃ in the air. The resulting intact oxide layer, composed of (Al, Cr)2O3 and MnCr2O4 phases, effectively slowing down the oxidation rates at 900 ℃. The general cracks in the sol-gel film during the oxidation process are found to be self-healed by a growing spinel MnCr2O4 phase from the substrate, attributed to its low Gibbs free energy and the sufficient Cr source from the adjacent substrate. Furthermore, the oxide layer originates from the interaction between sol-gel film and the substrate which enhances the binding between the oxide layer and the substrate. Thus, it could be confirmed that a self-healing superior antioxidation layer is generated on the surface of AISI304 steel through an in-situ reaction induced by the Al-Y sol-gel film during high-temperature oxidation procedure.

Experimental and numerical study of dissimilar fiber laser welding of martensitic AISI 1060 carbon steel with different configuration with austenitic 304 and ferritic 420 stainless steel

Welding with fiber laser for two distinct stainless steel types was performed to join with the martensitic carbon steel (AISI 1060) in order to assess the effect of laser welding operating parameters for two dissimilar materials on the weld characterization thorough experimental design method and numerical investigation. A full central composite design (CCD) matrix in accordance with the response surface methodology (RSM) was developed to represent the responses variations by equations including quadratic and nonlinear interaction terms. Different laser welding parameters were taken into account, such as laser power, linear speed of welding, focal distance of the beam, and beam deviation. The responses considered were the temperature field next to the melt pool border line, the maximum penetration depth of the fusion zone and the ultimate tensile strength of the dissimilar weld joint. Additionally, the variation of the microstructure fusion zone and adjacent areas and failure mechanism of the weld joint were evaluated. The experimental results indicate that the temperature field measured at the vicinity of the melt pool fusion line with both 304 and 420 stainless steel which primarily influenced by the incident power of the laser and linear velocity of beam, respectively. Additionally, the numerical simulation results are in good agreement with temperature experimental results at vicinity of fusion line where the temperature measured, experimentally. Apart from this, at the center of the fusion zone, the temperature clearly predicts via numerical simulation results which is not possible to assess experimentally. A clear comparison between the temperature distribution with different joint configuration illustrates that distinct relation between the temperature variation rate and different thermal conductivity coefficient of AISI 1060 with different AISI 304 and 420 joint configuration resulted different temperature distribution. The weld joint microstructure for 420 stainless steel–AISI 1060 steel joint at fusion boundary zone consists of columnar dendrites and skeletal columnar ferrite. At the center of fusion zone, a cellular-type structure is seen. For 304 stainless steel joint, the fusion zone has composed of a remarkable part of skeletal delta-ferrite and dendritic microstructure at austenite matrix microstructure. The fracture section of 304 steel has a ductile fracture and the depth of fracture dimples and cavities toward 304 stainless steel are higher than AISI 1060 steel.

Multi-objective optimization of machining parameters of mild steel AISI 1018 under compressed air-assisted cooling by using genetic algorithm

Multi-objective optimization of machining parameters of mild steel AISI 1018 under compressed air-assisted cooling by using genetic algorithm

In-situ preheating: Novel insights into thermal history and microstructure of directed energy deposition-arc of hot-work tool steels

Directed Energy Deposition-Arc (DED-Arc/M) represents a promising approach to the production of complex and medium-sized parts, eliminating the need for specific tooling and the minimization of resource use. However, the inherent thermal conditions of DED-Arc/M, characterized by high cooling rates and successive reheating cycles, result in microstructures distinctly different from those observed in traditional cast materials. Nevertheless, the influence of thermal history on DED-Arc/M processed hot-work tool steels remains an insufficiently addressed topic in previous studies. Therefore, this work systematically investigates the effects of heat input and accumulation through assessing the thermal history and resulting microstructural changes during DED-Arc/M processing of the hot-work tool steel AISI H13 (X40CrMoV5-1). Accordingly, layer-wise heat input results in heat accumulation, leading to high interpass temperatures, significantly impacting the solidification and, thus, the microsegregation as well as the overall chemical homogeneity. By employing an innovative statistical approach that incorporates quantitative EDS data, the distribution of chemical elements was investigated. Furthermore, a novel computational procedure through the utilization of empirical and thermodynamic calculations was used to identify microstructural effects on the thermodynamic stability of retained austenite. This research offers vital insights into the microstructural dynamics of tool steels processed through DED-Arc/M, underlining the pivotal role of precise thermal management in tailoring material microstructures and, consequently, influencing the properties for unlocking the full potential of additive manufacturing for industrial applications.

Application of impact-based and laser-based surface severe plastic deformation methods on additively manufactured 316L: Microstructure, tensile and fatigue behaviors

Applying post-processing methods can play a crucial role in addressing defects inherent in the as-built state of additively manufactured materials. This study comprehensively examined the effects of various post-processing techniques, including surface severe plastic deformation (SSPD) methods such as severe shot peening (SSP), ultrasonic shot peening (USP), ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification (UNSM), and laser shock peening (LSP), combined with stress relieving (SR) on the tensile properties and fatigue behavior of laser powder bed fusion (LB-PBF) stainless steel AISI 316L specimens. Experimental characterization was carried out, focusing on microstructure, porosity, surface texture, hardness, residual stresses, monotonic tensile properties, and rotating bending fatigue behavior. The results demonstrated an excellent combination of enhanced strength and ductility after applying SR and SSPD treatments. Additionally, the post-processing methods significantly improved fatigue behavior by increasing strength, closing subsurface pores, surface layer nanocrystallization and hardening, inducing compressive residual stresses, and modifying the surface texture. Notably, in the high-cycle fatigue regime at the lowest stress amplitude, the SR + UNSM treated specimens exhibited the greatest improvement in fatigue life, followed by SR + USP, SR + SSP, SR + LSP, and SR, when compared to the as-built state.

High strain-rate fracture behavior of a hollow projectile

In this paper, a hollow projectile made of AISI4340 steel was fabricated based on an arbitrary warhead shape, and high-speed impact tests were performed according to various target encounter conditions including velocity and angle. In order to characterize the dynamic fracture behavior, tensile tests were performed on various notch specimens under three strain rates (10–3 s-1, 100 s-1, 103 s-1), and the stress state histories of the specimens were calibrated through a hybrid experimental-numerical analysis. In particular, for the intermediate (100 s-1) and high (103 s-1) strain rate conditions, the local temperature rose due to adiabatic heating until fracture was experimentally measured, and the thermal softening behavior determined from the inverse optimization technique was considered for the dynamic constitutive model. For the comparison with the high-speed impact test results, a rate-dependent ductile fracture model was utilized for numerical simulation. Considering that the model parameters were calibrated with the thermal softening effect, the proposed fracture model implicitly takes temperature into account. The deformation and fracture modes of the projectile from experimental and numerical study showed very good agreement under all impact conditions. It was confirmed that the softening of a material by adiabatic heating should be considered along with strain rate hardening in dynamic fracture simulation.

Trapping and diffusion in high-pressure hydrogen charged CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy compared to austenitic steel 316L

High entropy alloys (HEAs) have attracted considerable research attention as potential substitute materials for austenitic steels in high-pressure hydrogen environments. The corresponding hydrogen absorption, diffusion and trapping has received less scientific attention. Therefore, the CoCrFeMnNi-HEA was investigated and compared to an austenitic steel AISI 316L. Both were subjected to high-pressure hydrogen charging at 200 bar and 1000 bar. Thermal Desorption Analysis (TDA) was used to clarify the specific desorption behavior and hydrogen trapping. For this purpose, the underlying TDA spectra were analyzed in terms of a reasonable peak deconvolution into a defined number of peaks and the activation energies for the respective and predominant hydrogen trapping sites were then calculated. Both materials show comparable hydrogen diffusivity. However, there were significant differences in the absorbed hydrogen concentrations at both charging pressures. The calculated activation energies suggest strong hydrogen trapping in the CoCrFeMnNi-HEA.

Bending fatigue behavior of metastable and stable austenitic stainless steels with different surface morphologies

AbstractThe surface morphology has a significant influence on the fatigue behavior of components. For austenitic stainless steels (ASSs), this issue is even more pronounced due to their metastability. Based on the complex deformation mechanisms of metastable ASSs, which include dislocation slip, deformation twinning, and deformation‐induced martensitic phase transformation, the metastable stainless steel AISI 347 was investigated in this study together with the stable AISI 904L as a reference material. Four‐point bending fatigue tests with load ratio R = 0.1 and testing frequency f = 10 Hz at ambient temperature were carried out on specimens with five technically relevant surface morphologies: mechanical polished, milled, microshot peened, laser shock‐peened, and ultrasonic modified. Systematic material characterizations were carried out to elucidate the crucial role of surface roughness and deformation‐induced α′‐martensite in the fatigue behavior of both metastable and stable materials. While surface roughness is a well‐known key factor in conventional fatigue cases, deformation‐induced martensite layers implemented by various surface modification methods were proven to improve the fatigue life in metastable austenitic steels, opening new perspectives to extend the lifetime of ASS components.

Rapid carburizing of low-alloy steel by atmospheric-controlled induction-heating fine-particle peening and investigation of its fatigue properties

Atmospheric-controlled induction-heating fine-particle peening (AIH-FPP) was applied to low-alloy, low-carbon steel AISI 4120 to achieve rapid carburizing within minutes and enhance fatigue strength. The shot particles used during AIH-FPP were specifically created by mechanically milling a mixture of steel particles and carbon powders. The specimens were analyzed using laser microscopy, optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction for residual stress measurement, a micro-Vickers hardness tester, and an electron probe micro-analyzer. Axial fatigue tests and fracture surface analyses via scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were also conducted. AIH-FPP effectively transferred carbon to the treated surface and facilitated its diffusion in a short period, creating a martensite layer with high hardness and compressive residual stress, which resulted in increased fatigue strength. The fatigue strength of the AIH-FPP-treated specimens was influenced by the conditions of reheating and quenching, which altered the prior austenitic grain size and stress concentration at the specimen surface. Notably, specimens treated with AIH-FPP followed by reheating and water-injection quenching exhibited fatigue strength comparable to that of conventional gas-carburized specimens, owing to the formation of a carburized layer with a small prior austenite grain size.

Effect of Residual Stresses on the Fatigue Stress Range of a Pre-Deformed Stainless Steel AISI 316L Exposed to Combined Loading

AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel is utilized in various processing industries, due to its abrasion resistance, corrosion resistance, and excellent properties over a wide temperature range. The physical and mechanical properties of a material change during the manufacturing process and plastic deformation, e.g., bending. During the combined tensile and bending loading of a structural component, the stress state changes due to the residual stresses and the loading range. To characterize the component’s stress state, the billet was bent to induce residual stress, but a phase transformation to martensite also occurred. The bent billet was subjected to combined tensile–bending and fatigue loading. The experimentally measured the load vs. displacement of the bent billet was compared with the numerical simulations. The results showed that during fatigue loading of the bent billet, both the initial stress state at the critical point and the stress state during the dynamic loading itself must be considered. Analysis was demonstrated only for one single critical point on the surface of the bent billet. The residual stresses due to the phase transformation of austenite to martensite affected the range and ratio of stress. The model for the stress–strain behaviour of the material was established by comparing the experimentally and numerically obtained load vs. displacement curves. Based on the description of the stress–strain behaviour of the pre-deformed material, guidelines have been provided for reducing residual tensile stresses in pre-deformed structural components.

Investigations of Metallurgical Differences in AISI 347 and Their Influence on Deformation and Transformation Behaviour and Resulting Fatigue Life.

Due to variations in chemical composition and production processes, homonymous austenitic stainless steels can differ significantly regarding their initial microstructure, metastability, and thus, their fatigue behavior. Microstructural investigations and fatigue tests have been performed in order to evaluate this aspect. Three different batches and production forms of nominally one type of steel AISI 347 were investigated under monotonic tensile tests and cyclic loading under total strain and stress control in low and high cycle fatigue regimes, respectively. The deformation induced α'-martensite formation was investigated globally by means of in situ magnetic measurements and locally using optical light microscopy of color etching of micrographs. The investigation showed that the chemical composition and the different production processes influence the material behavior. In fatigue tests, a higher metastability and thus a higher level of deformation induced α'-martensite pronounced cyclic hardening, resulting in significantly greater endurable stresses in total strain-controlled tests and an increase in fatigue life in stress-controlled tests. For applications of non-destructive-testing, detailed knowledge of a component's metastability is required. In less metastable batches and for lower stress levels, α'-martensite primarily formed at the plasticization zone of a crack. Furthermore, the formation and nucleation points of α'-martensite were highly dependent on grain size and the presence of δ-ferrite. This study provides valuable insights into the different material behavior of three different batches with the same designation, i.e., AISI 347, due to different manufacturing processes and differences in the chemical composition, metastability, and microstructure.

Fatigue crack initiation site transition of high‐strength steel under very high‐cycle fatigue

AbstractThe very high‐cycle fatigue (VHCF) fractographies of high‐strength steel AISI 4340 with tensile strength ranging from 1285 to 2363 MPa fabricated by tempering were systematically observed and quantitatively analyzed. It is found that the fatigue crack initiation sites were gradually transferred from the specimen surface to the interior with increasing the tensile strength or decreasing the stress amplitude. Such phenomenon has become common rule in the high‐cycle fatigue (HCF) or VHCF regimes of high‐strength steels. Based on the fracture mechanics, a simplified transition mechanism for fatigue crack initiation sites is established in terms of the influence of applied stress amplitude and microstructure, which is beneficial to enhance our understanding on the variation of fatigue strength increasing the tensile strength.

Experimental and DFT analysis of the concentration dependency of corrosion inhibition by a pyridine Schiff base for mild steel in HCl solution

In the present article, we studied the corrosion inhibition of the pyridine Schiff base N, N´-bis(4-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde)-2, 6-pyridinediamine (4-DMBPy) during the corrosion of mild steel AISI 1020 in a 0.1 M HCl solution. The electrochemical analysis by potentiodynamic polarization (PDP) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) revealed that the Schiff base promotes a protective efficiency up to 81 % at 25 ppm, followed by a decrease at higher concentrations.The Schiff base – surface interactions follow a Freundlich isotherm, indicating a physical adsorption mechanism. The theoretical calculus by Fukui function and dual reactivity descriptors confirmed the physical interaction with mild steel and the low reactivity of the adsorbed species that led to corrosion protection affecting the cathodic and anodic reactions. The quantum calculations by density functional theory (DFT) indicated that protective efficiency decreases due to the tendency to interact with each other. These interactions led to the formation of molecular aggregates and a desorption process. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations exhibited that the 4-DMBPy molecule preferred to arrange parallel to the Fe (110) surface through physical adsorption. The results were complemented by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy (AFM) analyses to reveal the further information about the corrosion process and the effect of the 4-DMBPy Schiff base as a corrosion inhibitor.

Multiscale Parametrization Of a Friction Model For Metal Cutting Using Contact Mechanics, Atomistic Simulations, And Experiments

In this study, we developed and parametrized a friction model for finite element (FE) cutting simulations of AISI4140 steel, combining experimental data and numerical simulations at various scales. Given the severe thermomechanical loads during cutting, parametrization of friction models based on analogous experiments has been proven difficult, such that the cutting process itself is often used for calibration. Instead, our model is based on the real area of contact between rough surfaces and the stress required to shear adhesive micro contacts. We utilized microtextured cutting tools and their negative imprint on chips to orient chip and tool surfaces, enabling the determination of a combined surface roughness. This effective roughness was then applied in contact mechanics calculations using a penetration hardness model informed by indentation hardness measurements. Consistent with Bowden and Tabor theory, we observed that the fractional contact area increased linearly with the applied normal load, and the effective roughness remained insensitive to cutting fluid application. Additionally, we calculated the required shear stress as a function of normal load using DFT-based molecular dynamics simulations for a tribofilm formed at the interface, with its composition inferred from ex-situ XPS depth profiling of the cutting tools. Our friction model demonstrated good agreement with experimental results in two-dimensional FE chip forming simulations of orthogonal cutting processes, evaluated by means of cutting force, passive force, and contact length prediction. This work presents a proof of concept for a physics-based approach to calibrate constitutive models in metal cutting, potentially advancing the use of multiscale and multiphysical simulations in machining.Graphical abstract

Corrosion of AISI1018 and AISI304 steel exposed to sulfates

This research analyses the behavior of corrosion, durability, and quality of reinforced concrete samples coated with two different materials when exposed to contaminated soil with sulfates. The initial assessment involved evaluating the water absorption rate of the coating materials before and after exposure to a solution containing 3% Na2SO4 + 3% MgSO4 + 3% K2SO4 + 3% CaSO4 to determine their durability. The corrosion potential and linear polarization resistance technique were employed to measure the corrosion rate. Carbon steel and AISI 304 steel bars were tested alongside a stainless counter electrode. The findings indicate that the solvent-based coating exhibited superior performance, demonstrating reduced corrosion and water absorption rates. Additionally, the presence of sulfates led to the formation of a surface layer on the concrete, initially aiding in limiting water penetration. However, over time, this layer eventually causes damage to the concrete from the inside out.

Complex electron-ion-plasma surface modification of high-alloy stainless steel

The work is devoted to identification and analysis of patterns of change in the elemental and phase composition, defective substructure, mecha­nical (microhardness) and tribological (wear resistance and friction coefficient) properties of stainless high-chromium steel subjected to complex processing, combining vacuum irradiation of the samples surface layer with an intense pulsed electron beam of submillisecond exposure duration and subsequent nitriding under electron-ionic heating conditions. High-chromium steel AISI 310S, which in the initial state is a polycrystalline aggregate based on γ-iron, was used as the research material. Pulsed electron beam treatment of steel was carried out on a “SOLO” installation equipped with an electron source with a plasma cathode based on a low-pressure pulsed arc discharge with grid stabilization of the cathode plasma boundary and an open anode plasma boundary. Steel nitriding was carried out on a “TRIO” installation with a chamber size of 600×600×600 mm, equipped with a switching unit to implement the electron-ionic processing mode. Nitriding was carried out at 723, 793, and 873 K temperatures for 1, 3 and 5 h. It was found that electron-ionic nitriding of the samples pre-irradiated with an electron beam (10 J/cm2, 200 μs, 3 pulses at 723 and 793 K for 3 h) is accompanied by the formation of a ceramic layer containing only iron and chromium nitrides. The highest values of steel wear resistance after electron-ionic nitriding, exceeding the wear resistance of the initial steel by more than 700 times, are observed at nitriding parameters of 793 K, 3 h.

Effect of welding parameters on microstructure and mechanical properties of dissimilar AISI 304/ductile cast iron fusion welded joints

Problems associated with dissimilar fusion welding are mainly originated from the differences in melting points, coefficients of thermal conductivity and thermal expansion, …etc., and carbon content when welding dissimilar ferrous materials. In this study, the problems associated with dissimilar fusion welding of stainless steel AISI304 with ductile cast iron DCI grade A536 were investigated. Using shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process, various welding parameters were studied to investigate the successful/accepted dissimilar welded joint(s). Welding electrodes and welding techniques were the main studied parameters. Microstructural and mechanical investigations were carried out for welded joints under different welding parameters. Tensile, impact and hardness tests coupled with optical and scanning electron microscopic examinations with EDX analysis were made for metallurgical and mechanical evaluations of welded joints. This extensive study could solve the problem of dissimilar welding between ductile cast iron and 304 stainless steel. The main results showed that joints welded by ENiCrFe-3 electrode in root pass and ENiFe-CI in filling passes were the successful dissimilar welded joints with 422 MPa tensile strength which represents 104% of annealed DCI base metal and without any changes in toughness properties, where toughness at HAZ of DCI was 18 J. High Ni content in weld metal increased the strength, ductility and reduced the weld metal dilution.