Head AIS Research Articles

Comfort care in trauma patients without severe head injury: In-hospital complications as a trigger for goals of care discussions

IntroductionMany injured patients or their families make the difficult decision to withdraw life-sustaining therapies (WLST) following severe injury. While this population has been studied in the setting of severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), little is known about patients who undergo WLST without TBI. We sought to describe patients who may benefit from early involvement of end-of-life resources. MethodsTrauma Quality Improvement Program (2013–2014) patients who underwent WLST were identified. WLST patients were compared to those who died with full supportive care (FSC). Patients were excluded for death within 24 h of admission, or head AIS > 3. Intergroup comparisons were by student’s t tests or Wilcoxon rank sum tests; significance for p < 0.05. ResultsWe identified 3471 total injured patients without major TBI who died > 24 h after admission. Of these death after WLST occurred in 2301 (66% of total). This group had a mean age of 66.8 years; 35.7% were women, and 95.4% sustained blunt injury. WLST patients had a higher ISS (21.6 vs. 12.5, p = 0.001), more in-hospital complications (71.4% vs. 41.6%, p = < 0.0001), and a longer ICU length of stay (8.9 days vs. 7.5 days, p = <0.0001) compared to patients who died with FSC. ConclusionWLST occurs in two-thirds of injured patients without severe TBI who die in the hospital. In-hospital complications are more frequent in this patient group than those who die with FSC. Early palliative care consultation may improve patient and family satisfaction after acute injury when the timeframe to leverage such services is significantly condensed.

Mapping and prediction of organ procurement in cases resulting in mortality due to traumatic injuries: A matched cohort analysis.

The prediction of posttraumatic potential organ donors is a complex process. The aim of this study is to evaluate the organ procurement process in trauma-related injuries and determine the medical markers in organ donors and posttraumatic mortal patients at the first level emergency, in emergency surgical service, and surgical intensive care departments. In this retrospective study, after the approval of the ethics committee, the records of the patients in the emergency surgery unit, the operating room, and the organ donors in surgical intensive care unit between the years 2000 January-2011 December were examined. Patient demographics, distribution of donated organs, intubation area, transfer to the hospital, patient's service, trauma type, injury mechanism, and severity of the injury were examined. Continuous variables were evaluated with independent samples by the Student's t-test or Mann-Whitney U test and binary variables with the Pearson Chi-Square test. The patients who lost their lives and survived in the emergency department (ED) were compared with an age ratio of 1: 3. Final results were evaluated by multiple logistic regression. The patients with ≤90 mmHg systolic blood pressure (SBP) or penetrant serious injuries were more likely to be candidates for organ donation in ED, respectively; 68.2% vs. 15.2% [AOR: 4.59 (1.14, 18.40), p<0.031] and 63.6% vs. 37.9% (AOR: 6.25 [1.27-30.49] [p<0.024]). Patients with AIS head ≥3 and in-hospital blood replacement of 1500 cc or more, were more likely to be organ donors after ED: 54.5% vs. 97% (AOR: 0.074 [0.014 kan0.548], [p<0.01]) and 10% vs. 58.1% (AOR: 0.098 [0.016-0.591], p<0.01]). In terms of predictive traits for organ procurement, a SBP of ≤90 mmHg and presence of serious penetrant injuries were found to be more predictive for organ transplantation than other factors such as AIS Head ≥3 or 1500 cc or more replacement of blood and blood products.

Spontaneous Hyperventilation in Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: Incidence and Association with Poor Neurological Outcome.

Hypocapnia induces cerebral vasoconstriction leading to a decrease in cerebral blood flow, which might precipitate cerebral ischemia. Hypocapnia can be intentional to treat intracranial hypertension or unintentional due to a spontaneous hyperventilation (SHV). SHV is frequent after subarachnoid hemorrhage. However, it is understudied in patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). The objective of this study was to describe the incidence and consequences on outcome of SHV after severe TBI. We conducted a retrospective, observational study including all intubated TBI patients admitted in the trauma center and still comatose 24h after the withdrawal of sedation. SHV was defined by the presence of at least one arterial blood gas (ABG) with both PaCO2 < 35mmHg and pH > 7.45. Patient characteristics and outcome were extracted from a prospective registry of all intubated TBI admitted in the intensive care unit. ABG results were retrieved from patient files. A multivariable logistic regression model was developed to determine factors independently associated with unfavorable outcome (defined as a Glasgow Outcome Scale between 1 and 3) at 6-month follow-up. During 7years, 110 patients fully respecting inclusion criteria were included. The overall incidence of SHV was 69.1% (95% CI [59.9-77]). Patients with SHV were more severely injured (median head AIS score (5 [4-5] vs. 4 [4-5]; p = 0.016)) and exhibited an elevated morbidity during their stay. The proportion of patients with an unfavorable functional neurologic outcome was significantly higher in patients with SHV: 40 (52.6%) versus 6 (17.6%), p = 0.0006. After adjusting for confounders, SHV remains an independent factor associated with unfavorable outcome at the 6-month follow-up (OR 4.1; 95% CI [1.2-14.4]). SHV is common in patients with a persistent coma after a severe TBI (overall rate: 69%) and was independently associated with unfavorable outcome at 6-month follow-up.

Decreased Risk of Delirium With Use of Regional Analgesia in Geriatric Trauma Patients With Multiple Rib Fractures.

The aim of this study was to examine the risk of delirium in geriatric trauma patients with rib fractures treated with systemic opioids compared with those treated with regional analgesia (RA). Delirium is a modifiable complication associated with increased morbidity and mortality. RA may reduce the need for opioid medications, which are associated with delirium in older adults. Cohort study of patients ≥65 years admitted to a regional trauma center from 2011 to 2016. Inclusion factors were ≥ 3 rib fractures, blunt trauma mechanism, and admission to intensive care unit (ICU). Exclusion criteria included head AIS ≥3, spine AIS ≥3, dementia, and death within 24 hours. The primary outcome was delirium positive ICU days, defined using the CAM-ICU assessment. Delirium incident rate ratios (IRRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were estimated using generalized linear mixed models with Poisson distribution and robust standard errors. Of the 144 patients included in the study, 27 (19%) received Acute Pain Service consultation and RA and 117 (81%) received opioid-based systemic analgesia. Patients with RA had more severe chest injury than those without. The risk of delirium decreased by 24% per day per patient with use of RA (IRR 0.76, 95% CI 0.61 to 0.96). Individual opioid use, as measured in daily morphine equivalents (MEDs), was significantly reduced after initiation of RA (mean difference -7.62, 95% CI -14.4 to -0.81). Although use of RA techniques in geriatric trauma patients with multiple rib fractures was associated with higher MED, opioid use decreased after RA initiation and Acute Pain Service consultation, and the risk of delirium was lower.

Prospective evaluation of the Quality of Life after Brain Injury (QOLIBRI) score: minor differences in patients with major versus no or mild traumatic brain injury at one-year follow up

BackgroundThe Quality of Life after Brain Injury (QOLIBRI) score was developed to assess disease-specific health-related quality of life (HRQoL) after traumatic brain injury (TBI). So far, validation studies on the QOLIBRI were only conducted in cohorts with traumatic brain injury. This study investigated the longer-term residuals in severely injured patients, focusing specifically on the possible impact of major TBI.MethodsIn a prospective questionnaire investigation, 199 survivors with an injury severity score (ISS) > 15 participated in one-year follow-up. Patients who had sustained major TBI (abbreviated injury scale, AIS head > 2) were compared with patients who had no or only mild TBI (AIS head ≤ 2). Univariate analysis (ANOVA, Cohen’s kappa, Pearson’s r) and stepwise linear regression analysis (B with 95% CI, R, R2) were used.ResultsThe total QOLIBRI revealed no differences in one-year outcomes between patients with versus without major TBI (75 and 76, resp.; p = 0.68). With regard to the cognitive subscore, the group with major TBI demonstrated significantly more limitations than the one with no or mild TBI (p < 0.05). The AIS head correlated significantly with the cognitive dimension of the QOLIBRI (r = − 0.16; p < 0.05), but not with the mental components of the SF-36 or the TOP. In multivariate analysis, the influence of the severity of head injury (AIS head) on total QOLIBRI was weaker than that of injured extremities (R2 = 0.02; p < 0.05 vs. R2 = 0.04; p = 0.001) and equal to the QOLIBRI cognitive subscore (R2 = 0.03, p < 0.01 each).ConclusionsGiven the unexpected result of similar mean QOLIBRI total score values and only minor differences in cognitive deficits following major trauma independently of whether patients sustained major brain injury or not, further studies should investigate whether the QOLIBRI actually has the discriminative capacity to detect specific residuals of major TBI. In effect, the score appears to indicate mental deficits following different types of severe trauma, which should be evaluated in more detail.Trial registrationNCT02165137; retrospectively registered 11 June 2014.

Flail Chest: Less Deadly than Originally Thought.

Flail chest is considered a highly morbid condition with reported mortality ranging from 10 to 20%. It is often associated with other severe injuries, which may complicate management and interpretation of outcomes. The physiologic impact and prognosis of isolated flail chest injury is poorly defined. This is a National Trauma Databank study. All patients from 1/2007 to 12/2014 admitted with flail chest were extracted. Patients with head or abdominal AIS ≥3, dead on arrival, or transferred, were excluded. Primary outcome was mortality; secondary outcomes were need for mechanical ventilation and pneumonia. Of the 1,047,519 patients with blunt chest injury, 14,718 (1.4%) patients presented with flail chest, and 8098 (0.77%) met inclusion criteria. The most commonly associated intrathoracic injuries were hemothorax (57.9%) and lung contusions (63.0%), while sternal fracture (8.8%) and cardiac contusion (2.5%) were less common. In total, 29.8% of patients required mechanical ventilation, and 11.2% developed pneumonia. Overall mortality was 5.6%. On multivariable analysis, age >65 and need for mechanical ventilation were independent risk factors for mortality (OR 6.02, 3.75, respectively, p < 0.001). Independent predictors for mechanical ventilation included cardiac or pulmonary contusion and sternal fractures (OR 3.78, 2.38, 2.29, respectively, p < 0.001). Need for mechanical ventilation was an independent predictor of pneumonia (OR 13.18, p < 0.001). Mortality in isolated flail chest is much lower than previously reported. Fewer than 30% of patients require mechanical ventilation. Need for mechanical ventilation, however, is independently associated with mortality and pneumonia. Age >65 is an independent risk factor for adverse outcomes, and these patients may benefit by more aggressive monitoring and treatment.

Increased reduction in exsanguination rates leaves brain injury as the only major cause of death in blunt trauma

IntroductionCentral nervous system (CNS) related injuries and exsanguination have been the most common causes of death in trauma for decades. Despite improvements in haemorrhage control in recent years exsanguination is still a major cause of death. We conducted a prospective database study to investigate the current incidence of haemorrhage related mortality. Materials and methodsA prospective database study of all trauma patients admitted to an urban major trauma centre between January 2007 and December 2016 was conducted. All in-hospital trauma deaths were included. Cause of death was reviewed by a panel of trauma surgeons. Patients who were dead on arrival were excluded. Trends in demographics and outcome were analysed per year. Further, 2 time periods (2007–2012 and 2013–2016) were selected representing periods before and after implementation of haemostatic resuscitation and damage control procedures in our hospital to analyse cause of death into detail. Results11,553 trauma patients were admitted, 596 patients (5.2%) died. Mean age of deceased patients was 61 years and 61% were male. Mechanism of injury (MOI) was blunt in 98% of cases. Mean ISS was 28 with head injury the most predominant injury (mean AIS head 3.4). There was no statistically significant difference in sex and MOI over time. Even though deceased patients were older in 2016 compared to 2007 (67 vs. 46 years, p < 0.001), mortality was lower in later years (p = 0.02). CNS related injury was the main cause of death in the whole decade; 58% of patients died of CNS in 2007–2012 compared to 76% of patients in 2013–2016 (p = 0.001). In 2007–2012 9% died of exsanguination compared to 3% in 2013–2016 (p = 0.001). DiscussionIn this cohort in a major trauma centre death by exsanguination has decreased to 3% of trauma deaths. The proportion of traumatic brain injury has increased over time and has become the most common cause of death in blunt trauma. Besides on-going prevention of brain injury future studies should focus on treatment strategies preventing secondary damage of the brain once the injury has occurred

Quality of head injury coding from autopsy reports with AIS © 2005 update 2008

ABSTACTObjective: Coding injuries from autopsy reports of traffic accident victims according to Abbreviated Injury Scale AIS © 2005 update 2008 [1] is quite time consuming. The suspicion arose, that many issues leading to discussion between coder and control reader were based on information required by the AIS that was not documented in the autopsy reports.Methods: To quantify this suspicion, we introduced an AIS-detail-indicator (AIS-DI). To each injury in the AIS Codebook one letter from A to N was assigned indicating the level of detail. Rules were formulated to receive repeatable assignments. This scheme was applied to a selection of 149 multiply injured traffic fatalities. The frequencies of “not A” codes were calculated for each body region and it was analysed, why the most detailed level A had not been coded. As a first finding, the results of the head region are presented.Results: 747 AIS head injury codes were found in 137 traffic fatalities, and 60% of these injuries were coded with an AIS-DI of level A. There are three different explanations for codes of AIS-DI “not A”: Group 1 “Missing information in autopsy report” (5%), Group 2 “Clinical data required by AIS” (20%), and Group 3 “AIS system determined” (15%). Groups 1 and 2 show consequences for the ISS in 25 cases. Other body regions might perform differently.Conclusions: The AIS-DI can indicate the quality of the underlying data basis and, depending on the aims of different AIS users it can be a helpful tool for quality checks.

Nonoperative Management of Blunt Splenic Trauma in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury: Feasibility and Outcomes.

Preventing secondary insult to the brain is imperative following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Although TBI does not preclude nonoperative management (NOM) of splenic injuries, development of hypotension in this setting may be detrimental and could therefore lead trauma surgeons to a lower threshold for operative intervention and a potentially higher risk of failure of NOM (FNOM). We hypothesized that the presence of a TBI in patients with blunt splenic injury would lead to a higher risk of FNOM. Patients with blunt splenic injury were selected from the National Trauma Data Bank research datasets from 2007 to 2011. TBI was defined as AIS head≥3 and FNOM as patients who underwent a spleen-related operation after 2h from admission. TBI patients were compared to those without head injury. The primary outcome was FNOM. Of 47,713 patients identified, 41,436 (86.8%) underwent a trial of NOM. FNOM was identical (10.6 vs. 10.8%, p=0.601) among patients with and without TBI. TBI patients had lower adjusted odds for FNOM (AOR 0.66, p<0.001), even among those with a high-grade splenic injury (AOR 0.68, p<0.001). No difference in adjusted mortality was noted when comparing TBI patients with and without FNOM (AOR 1.01, p=0.95). NOM of blunt splenic trauma in TBI patients has higher adjusted odds for success. This could be related to interventions targeting prevention of secondary brain injury. Further studies are required to identify those specific practices that lead to a higher success rate of NOM of splenic trauma in TBI patients.

Risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonia in trauma patients: A descriptive analysis.

We sought to evaluate the risk factors for developing ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) and whether the location of intubation posed a risk in trauma patients. Data were retrospectively reviewed for adult trauma patients requiring intubation for > 48 hours, admitted between 2010 and 2013. Patients' demographics, clinical presentations and outcomes were compared according to intubation location (prehospital intubation [PHI] vs. trauma room [TRI]) and presence vs. absence of VAP. Multivariate regression analysis was performed to identify predictors of VAP. Of 471 intubated patients, 332 patients met the inclusion criteria (124 had PHI and 208 had TRI) with a mean age of 30.7±14.8 years. PHI group had lower GCS (P=0.001), respiratory rate (P=0.001), and higher frequency of head (P=0.02) and chest injuries (P=0.04). The rate of VAP in PHI group was comparable to the TRI group (P=0.60). Patients who developed VAP were 6 years older, had significantly lower GCS and higher ISS, head AIS, and higher rates of polytrauma. The overall mortality was 7.5%, and was not associated with intubation location or pneumonia rates. In the early-VAP group, gram-positive pathogens were more common, while gram-negative microorganisms were more frequently encountered in the late VAP group. Logistic regression analysis and modeling showed that the impact of the location of intubation in predicting the risk of VAP appeared only when chest injury was included in the models. In trauma, the risk of developing VAP is multifactorial. However, the location of intubation and presence of chest injury could play an important role.

Intensive care treatments associated with favorable discharge outcomes in Argentine children with severe traumatic brain injury: For the South American Guideline Adherence Group.

ObjectiveLittle is known about the critical care management of children with traumatic brain injury (TBI) in low middle income countries. We aimed to identify indicators of intensive care unit (ICU) treatments associated with favorable outcomes in Argentine children with severe TBI.MethodsWe conducted a secondary analysis of data from patients previously enrolled in a prospective seven center study of children with severe TBI who were admitted to an ICU in one of the seven study centers. Severe TBI was defined by head AIS ≥ 3, head CT with traumatic lesion, and admission GCS < 9. Seven indicators of best practice TBI care were examined. The primary outcome was discharge Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category Scale [PCPC] and Pediatric Overall Performance category Scale [POPC]. We also examined variation in ICU care and in-patient mortality.ResultsOf the 117 children, 67% were male and 7.5 (4.3) years on average, 92% had isolated TBI. Hypotension (54%) was more common than hypoxia (28%) and clinical or radiographic signs of high intracranial pressure (ICP) were observed in 92%. Yet, ICP monitoring occurred in 60% and hyperosmolar therapy was used in only 36%. Adherence to indicators of best TBI practice ranged from 55.6% to 83.7% across the seven centers and adherence was associated with favorable discharge PCPC (aRR 0.98; 95% CI [0.96, 0.99]), and POPC (aRR 0.98; 95% CI [0.96, 0.99]). Compared to patients whose adherence rates were below 65%, patients whose adherence rates were higher between 75%-100% had better discharge PCPC (aRR 0.28; 95% CI [0.10, 0.83]) and POPC (aRR 0.32; 95% CI [0.15, 0.73]. Two indicators were associated with favorable discharge PCPC: Avoidance of hypoxia (aRR 0.46; 95% CI [0.23, 0.93]), and Nutrition started in 72 hours (aRR 0.45; 95% CI [0.21, 0.99]). Avoiding hypoxia was also associated with favorable discharge POPC (aRR 0.47; 95% CI [0.22, 0.99]).ConclusionThere is variation in Argentine ICU practice in the care of children with severe TBI. Second insults are common and hyperosmolar therapy use is uncommon. Adherence to best practice TBI care by avoiding hypoxia and providing timely nutrition were associated with significantly favorable discharge outcomes. Implementing strategies that prevent hypoxia and facilitate early nutrition in the ICUs are urgently needed to improve pediatric TBI outcomes.

Early Seizure Prophylaxis in Traumatic Brain Injuries Revisited: A Prospective Observational Study.

Pharmacological prophylaxis for early seizures following traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a recommendation in the Brain Trauma Foundation Guidelines. However, several studies have challenged the efficacy and safety of this practice, resulting in varied practice across centers around the world. The purpose of the present study was to compare the incidence of early clinical seizures following TBI, between two large centers, a US Center that practises routine seizure prophylaxis and a Chinese Center that does not use seizure prophylaxis following TBI. This was a prospective observational study including an urban level I trauma center in the USA and a large hospital in Shenzhen, China. At the US Center, all patients received seizure prophylaxis with levetiracetam. At the Chinese Center, no seizure prophylaxis was given. All patients with blunt TBI and positive computed tomography findings for epidural hematoma, subdural hematoma, subarachnoid hemorrhage, intracerebral hemorrhage or diffuse axonal injury were included. Patients who died within 24h of admission were excluded. The study population was monitored daily for clinical seizures for the first 7 post-injury days. Data collected included demographics, mechanism of injury, vital signs upon arrival, injury severity and emergency interventions. Primary outcome was the incidence of early seizures, defined as those occurring within 7days of injury. A total of 522 patients were included in the analysis: 272 patients at the US Center who received seizure prophylaxis and 250 patients at the Chinese Center who did not receive prophylaxis. Overall, 3.7% of patients who received seizure prophylaxis developed early seizures, compared to 2.8% of patients who did not receive any prophylaxis (p=0.573). Decompressive craniectomy was associated with the highest incidence of early seizure (9.2%). In this subgroup, the seizure rate was 10.4% in the prophylaxis group and 7.1% in the no-prophylaxis group (p=0.738). Patients with admission GCS<9 had an overall early seizure incidence of 7.0%: 4.3% in the prophylaxis group and 14.3% in the no-prophylaxis group (p=0.062). Analysis of the subgroup with isolated blunt TBI showed an incidence of early seizures of 3.4% in the prophylaxis group versus 2.4% in the no-prophylaxis group (p=0.593). Further analyses of outcomes according to head AIS 3, 4 and 5 showed no significant difference in the seizure rate between the two groups: head AIS 3: 6.1% in the prophylaxis group versus 2.6% in the no-prophylaxis group, p=0.329; head AIS 4: 0 versus 2.7%, p=0.302; head AIS 5: 8.7 versus 4.0%, p=0.601. The present study failed to show any benefit of routine early seizure prophylaxis following blunt TBI. This practice should be reexamined in a large randomized clinical study.

Predictors and Time-Based Hospital Mortality in Patients with Isolated and Polytrauma Brain Injuries.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. We studied the predictors and time-based mortality in patients with isolated and polytrauma brain injuries in a rapidly developing country. We hypothesized that TBI-related 30-day mortality is decreasing over time. A retrospective analysis was conducted for all patients with moderate-to-severe TBI who were admitted directly to a level 1 trauma center between 2010 and 2014. Patient's data were analyzed and compared according to survival (survived vs. not survived), time (early death [2days], intermediate [3-7days] versus late [>7days]) post-injury, and type (polytrauma vs. isolated TBI). Cox proportional hazards models were performed for the predictors of mortality. A total of 810 patients were admitted with moderate-to-severe TBI with a median age of 27years. Traffic-related injury was the main mechanism of TBI (65%). Isolated TBIs represented 22.6% of cases and 56% had head AIS >3. The overall mortality rate was 27%, and most of deaths occurred in the intermediate (40%) and early period (38%). The incidence of TBI was greater in patients aged 21-30years but the mortality was proportionately higher among elderly. The average annual incidence was 8.43 per 100,000 populationwith an overall mortality of 2.28 per 100,000population. Kaplan-Meier curves showed that polytrauma had greater mortality than isolated TBI. However, Cox survival analysis showed that age [Hazard ratio (HR) 1.02], scene GCS (HR 0.86),subarachnoid hemorrhage (HR 1.7), and blood transfusion amount (HR 1.03) were the predictors of mortality regardless of being polytrauma or isolated TBI after controlling for 14 relevant covariates. The 30-day survival in patients with TBI is improving over the years in Qatar; however, the mortality remains high in the elderly males. The majority of deaths occurred within a week after the injury. Further studies are needed to assess the long-term survival in patients with moderate-to-severe TBI.

Severe traumatic brain injuries in children: Does the type of trauma center matter?

BackgroundTraumatic brain injury (TBI) is the leading cause of death among injured children. Depending on geographic location, and trauma resources, pediatric patients may be treated at pediatric (PTC), adult (ATC), or mixed trauma centers (MTC). The effect of the type of trauma center on outcomes in severe TBI is not known. MethodsNTDB study (2007–2014), level 1 trauma centers, patients ≤14years with severe isolated TBI (head AIS≥3 and extracranial AIS≤2). Demographic, clinical and injury characteristics were abstracted. Logistic regression was used to compare outcomes between the three types of trauma centers. Results10,402 patients met inclusion criteria. 4430 (42.6%) were admitted in PTC, 4044 (38.9%) in ATC and 1928 (18.5%) in MTC. Overall, 39.9% of patients had head AIS 3, 55.5% had AIS 4 and 4.6% AIS 5. Mortality was 3.2% (2.0% in PTC, 4.5% in ATC and 3.3% in MTC). On logistic regression, treatment at ATC was associated with significantly higher mortality than PTC (OR 1.55, p=0.011). There was no significant difference between PTC and MTC (p=0.394). There was no significant difference in mortality between the 3 types of trauma centers in the subgroups of patients with head AIS 3 or 5. However, patients with head AIS 4 treated at MTC had significantly lower mortality (OR 0.163, 95% CI 0.053–0.501, p=0.002). ConclusionPatients with isolated severe TBI treated at PTC have significantly better survival than patients treated at ATC, but not MTC. In the subgroup of patients with isolated TBI and a head AIS score of 4, patients treated at MTC have improved survival than those treated at PTC. Level of evidenceIII.

Decreased mortality in patients with isolated severe blunt traumatic brain injury receiving higher plasma to packed red blood cells transfusion ratios

IntroductionHigher transfusion ratios of plasma to packed red blood cells (PRBC) and platelets (PLT) to PRBC have been shown to be associated with decreased mortality in major trauma patients. However, little is known about the effect of transfusion ratios on mortality in patients with isolated severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of transfusion ratios on mortality in patients with isolated severe blunt TBI. We hypothesized that higher transfusion ratios of plasma to PRBC and PLT to PRBC are associated with a lower mortality rate in these patients. MethodsRetrospective observational study. Patients with isolated severe blunt TBI (AIS head≥3, AIS extracranial <3) admitted to an urban level I trauma centre were included. Clinical data were extracted from the institution’s trauma registry, blood transfusion data from the blood bank database. The effect of higher transfusion ratios on in-hospital mortality was analysed using univariate and multivariable regression analysis. ResultsA total of 385 patients were included. Median age was 32 years (IQR 2–50), 71.4% were male, and 76.6% had an ISS≥16. Plasma:PRBC transfusion ratios≥1 were identified as an independent predictor for decreased in-hospital mortality (adjusted OR 0.43 [CI 0.22–0.81]). PLT:PRBC transfusion ratios≥1 were not significantly associated with mortality (adjusted OR 0.39 [CI 0.08–1.92]). ConclusionThis study revealed plasma to PRBC transfusion ratios≥1 as an independent predictor for decreased in-hospital mortality in patients with isolated severe blunt TBI.

Comparison of transportation related injury mechanisms and outcome of young road users and adult road users, a retrospective analysis on 24,373 patients derived from the TraumaRegister DGU\xae

BackgroundMost young people killed in road crashes are known as vulnerable road users. A combination of physical and developmental immaturity as well as inexperience increases the risk of road traffic accidents with a high injury severity rate. Understanding injury mechanism and pattern in a group of young road users may reduce morbidity and mortality. This study analyzes injury patterns and outcomes of young road users compared to adult road users. The comparison takes into account different transportation related injury mechanisms.MethodsA retrospective analysis using data collected between 2002 and 2012 from the TraumaRegister DGU® was performed. Only patients with a transportation related injury mechanism (motor vehicle collision (MVC), motorbike, cyclist, and pedestrian) and an ISS ≥ 9 were included in our analysis. Four different groups of young road users were compared to adult trauma data depending on the transportation related injury mechanism.ResultsTwenty four thousand three hundred seventy three, datasets were retrieved to compare all subgroups. The mean ISS was 23.3 ± 13.1. The overall mortality rate was 8.61%. In the MVC, the motorbike and the cyclist group, we found young road users having more complex injury patterns with a higher AIS pelvis, AIS head, AIS abdomen and AIS of the extremities and also a lower GCS. Whereas in these three sub-groups the adult trauma group only had a higher AIS thorax. Only in the group of the adult pedestrians we found a higher AIS pelvis, AIS abdomen, AIS thorax, a higher AIS of the extremities and a lower GCS.DiscussionThis study reports on the most common injuries and injury patterns in young trauma patients in comparison to an adult trauma sample. Our analysis show that in contrast to more experienced road users our young collective refers to be a vulnerable trauma group with an increased risk of a high injury severity and high mortality rate. We indicate a striking difference in terms of the region of injury and the mechanism of injury when comparing the young versus the adult trauma collectives.ConclusionsYoung drivers of cars, motorbikes and bikes were shown to be on high risk to sustain a specific severe injury pattern and a high mortality rate compared to adult road users. Our data emphasize a characteristic injury pattern of young trauma patients and may be used to improve trauma care and to guide prevention strategies to decrease injury severity and mortality due to road traffic injuries.

The impact of Glasgow Coma Scale–age prognosis score on geriatric traumatic brain injury outcomes

BackgroundAs the population ages, increasing number of geriatric patients sustain traumatic brain injury (TBI). Communication of accurate prognostic information is crucial for making informed decisions on behalf of such patients. Therefore, the aim of our study was to develop a simple and clinically applicable tool that accurately predicts the prognosis in geriatric TBI patients. MethodsWe performed a 1-y (2011) retrospective analysis of isolated geriatric TBI patients (age ≥65 y, head abbreviated injury score [AIS] ≥ 3, and other body AIS < 3) in the National Trauma Data Bank. We calculated a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)–age prognosis (GAP) score (age/GCS score) for all patients. Outcome measures were in-hospital adverse outcomes (mortality and Rehab/skilled nursing facility discharge disposition). Regression analysis and receiver operator characteristic curve analysis were performed to determine the discriminatory power of GAP score. ResultsA total of 8750 geriatric patients with TBI were included. Mean age was 77.8 ± 7.1 y, the median (interquartile range) GCS was 15 (13-15), and the median (interquartile range) head AIS was 4 (3-4). The overall in-hospital mortality rate was 12.7%, and 34.2% of the patients were discharged home. As the GAP score increased, the mortality rate increased and discharge to-home decreased. Receiver operator characteristic curve analysis revealed excellent discriminatory power for mortality (area under the curve: 0.826). Above a GAP score of 12, the mortality rate was >50% and more than 45% of the patients were discharged to Rehab/skilled nursing facility. ConclusionsFor geriatric patients with TBI, a simple GAP score reliably predicts outcomes. A score above 12 results in a drastic increase in mortality and an adverse discharge disposition. This simple tool may help clinicians provide accurate prognostic information to patients' families.

\u03b2-Blocker after severe traumatic brain injury is associated with better long-term functional outcome: a matched case control study

PurposeSevere traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the predominant cause of death and disability following trauma. Several studies have observed improved survival in TBI patients exposed to β-blockers, however, the effect on functional outcome is poorly documented.MethodsAdult patients with severe TBI (head AIS ≥ 3) were identified from a prospectively collected TBI database over a 5-year period. Patients with neurosurgical ICU length of stay <48 h and those dying within 48 h of admission were excluded. Patients exposed to β-blockers ≤ 48 h after admission and who continued with treatment until discharge constituted β-blocked cases and were matched to non β-blocked controls using propensity score matching. The outcome of interest was Glasgow Outcome Scores (GOS), as a measure of functional outcome up to 12 months after injury. GOS ≤ 3 was considered a poor outcome. Bivariate analysis was deployed to determine differences between groups. Odds ratio and 95% CI were used to assess the effect of β-blockers on GOS.Results362 patients met the inclusion criteria with 21% receiving β-blockers during admission. After propensity matching, 76 matched pairs were available for analysis. There were no statistical differences in any variables included in the analysis. Mean hospital length of stay was shorter in the β-blocked cases (18.0 vs. 26.8 days, p < 0.01). The risk of poor long-term functional outcome was more than doubled in non-β-blocked controls (OR 2.44, 95% CI 1.01–6.03, p = 0.03).ConclusionExposure to β-blockers in patients with severe TBI appears to improve functional outcome. Further prospective randomized trials are warranted.

Erratum to: Brain Trauma Foundation Guidelines for Intracranial Pressure Monitoring: Compliance and Effect on Outcome.

Brain Trauma Foundation (BTF) guidelines recommend intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring in patients who sustained severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Compliance to BTF guidelines is variable, and the effect of ICP monitoring on outcomes remains a controversial issue. The purpose of this study was to assess guidelines compliance in patients who sustain a severe TBI and to analyze the effect of ICP monitoring on outcomes. Trauma Quality Improvement Program database study, which included patients with isolated severe blunt head trauma (head Abbreviated Injury Scale ≥3 with Glasgow Coma Scale <9). Patients with severe extracranial injuries excluded. Analyzed variables were demographics, comorbidities, mechanism of injuries, head injury specifics, AIS for each body area, Injury Severity Score, admission vital signs, placement of ICP catheter and craniectomy. Multivariate analysis was used to identify independent predictors for outcomes, overall and in the groups of patients with head AIS 3, 4 or 5. During the study period 13,188 patients with isolated severe TBI met the BTF guidelines for ICP monitoring. An ICP catheter was placed in 1519 (11.5%) patients. Stepwise logistic regression analysis identified age ≥65 years, hypotension on admission, AIS 4 and AIS 5 as independent predictors for mortality. ICP monitoring was not an independent protective variable in terms of mortality (OR 1.12; 95% CI, 0.983–1.275; p = 0.088). Overall, ICP monitor placement was independently associated with increased overall complications (OR 2.089; 95% CI, 1.85–2.358; p < 0.001), infectious complications (OR 2.282; 95% CI, 2.015–2.584; p < 0.001) and poor functional independence (OR 1.889; 95% CI, 1.575–2.264; p < 0.001). Sub analysis of the groups of patients with head AIS 3, 4, and 5 failed to show any protective effect of ICP monitors against mortality. In the group of patients with head AIS 4, ICP placement was an independent predictor of mortality (OR 2206; 95% CI, 1652–2948; p < 0.001). Compliance with the BTF guidelines for ICP monitoring is poor. ICP monitoring does not have any survival benefit in patients with isolated severe blunt TBI and is associated with more complications and increased utilization of hospital resources.

Brain Trauma Foundation Guidelines for Intracranial Pressure Monitoring: Compliance and Effect on Outcome.

Brain Trauma Foundation (BTF) guidelines recommend intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring in patients who sustained severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Compliance to BTF guidelines is variable, and the effect of ICP monitoring on outcomes remains a controversial issue. The purpose of this study was to assess guidelines compliance in patients who sustain a severe TBI and to analyze the effect of ICP monitoring on outcomes. Trauma Quality Improvement Program database study, which included patients with isolated severe blunt head trauma (head Abbreviated Injury Scale ≥3 with Glasgow Coma Scale <9). Patients with severe extracranial injuries excluded. Analyzed variables were demographics, comorbidities, mechanism of injuries, head injury specifics, AIS for each body area, Injury Severity Score, admission vital signs, placement of ICP catheter and craniectomy. Multivariate analysis was used to identify independent predictors for outcomes, overall and in the groups of patients with head AIS 3, 4 or 5. During the study period 13,188 patients with isolated severe TBI met the BTF guidelines for ICP monitoring. An ICP catheter was placed in 1519 (11.5%) patients. Stepwise logistic regression analysis identified age ≥65years, hypotension on admission, AIS 4 and AIS 5 as independent predictors for mortality. ICP monitoring was not an independent protective variable in terms of mortality (OR 1.12; 95% CI, 0.983-1.275; p=0.088). Overall, ICP monitor placement was independently associated with increased overall complications (OR 2.089; 95% CI, 1.85-2.358; p<0.001), infectious complications (OR 2.282; 95% CI, 2.015-2.584; p<0.001) and poor functional independence (OR 1.889; 95% CI, 1.575-2.264; p<0.001). Sub analysis of the groups of patients with head AIS 3, 4, and 5 failed to show any protective effect of ICP monitors against mortality. In the group of patients with head AIS 4, ICP placement was an independent predictor of mortality (OR 2206; 95% CI, 1652-2948; p<0.001). Compliance with the BTF guidelines for ICP monitoring is poor. ICP monitoring does not have any survival benefit in patients with isolated severe blunt TBI and is associated with more complications and increased utilization of hospital resources.