Airport Terminals Research Articles

Analysis of Conveyance System Use in Airport Concourses

Airport terminal facilities continue to increase in size due to the trend of increasing demand at our nation’s regional and international airports. Airport operators have introduced various passenger conveyances including moving walkways, escalators, and elevators to reduce passenger walking distance and provide an acceptable level of service. This research is based on a data collection effort in various airports and depicts an empirical study on the use of passenger conveyance systems in airport terminals. A logistic regression approach was applied to estimate a passenger’s mode choice probability and to examine the relationship between passenger characteristics and their choice of automated conveyance systems in airport terminals.

Analysis of passenger queues at airport terminals

This paper presents an approach for analyzing passenger queueing processes at several stages of the service chain in airport terminals with a focus on passenger check-in systems. The queueing process at the check-in is driven by the arrival process of the passengers and the service process, including the desired technical and personnel resources. The key features of these systems are the time-dependent process of arrivals, generally distributed processing times, and systems with multiple servers. Time dependent service quality measures are analyzed, which are related to managerial decisions about the required number of check-in operators. Different analytical methods are reviewed to derive service quality measures for such dynamic and stochastic systems. Due to the dynamics in the demand and in the provided capacity, the use of standard queueing models is rather limited. A stationary backlog carryover (SBC) approach is developed to approximate the relevant performance measures. Numerical experiments demonstrate the reliability of these different approaches. Based on economies of scale, positive effects for common check-in operations can be shown.

Study on Mechanical Properties of Ribbed Cast Steel Spherical Joint in Complex Stress State

Cast steel joints have been widely utilized in large-span spatial structures. Based on Ordos airport terminals engineering, the structure and design method of ribbed steel ball nodes is put forward in this essay, in which nonlinear finite element method is applied, bearing capacity and deformation capacity of ribbed steel ball nodes in the complex stress state is made a penetrating analysis to determine mechanical performance of the ribbed steel ball. Among other things, the manufacturing process and technical standards of cast steel ball nodes are elaborated.

Design and Analysis of Section-III Cable Net Curtain Wall of Hefei Xinqiao International Airport Terminal

Section-Ⅲ landside curtain wall of Hefei Xinqiao International Airport terminal adopted single layer cable net curtain wall, while others adopted stick-system curtain wall structure. In this paper, the section-Ⅲ overall structure model of Hefei Xinqiao International Airport terminal was established by using the finite element method (FEM) software ANSYS. The load bearing capacity and deformability of landside curtain wall under load cases with seismic loads and wind loads were analyzed. Also the cable net curtain wall’s effect on the main structure was discussed. The results showed that the displacements of curtain wall and the internal forces of cables met the requirements, and the cable net curtain wall had little effect on the main steel structure.

Simulation of Emergency Evacuation in the Arrival Hall of a Crowded Airport

Evacuation during emergency is a key issue to study. For the dense airport terminals, crowded movement under the maximum loading during emergency will give serious consequences. Safe evacuation is a concern to the Authority, especially for those terminals with difficulties in complying with the prescriptive fire codes. However, it is not feasible to carry out field tests to realize the evacuation time of the crowd during an emergency. Therefore, models simulating the evacuation of buildings are commonly used to study the evacuation pattern. BuildingEXODUS and SIMULEX are two of the widely used evacuation models, which were applied to study the evacuation in large and geometrically complex spaces with a high occupant level. Both models were applied to study the emergency evacuation in the arrival hall of the airport terminal in Hong Kong. Allowed figures on occupant loading in local codes were used. Four sets of scenarios were assessed in the crowded areas to realize the evacuation time of occupants under fire and normal conditions. From the simulated results on evacuation patterns, useful design parameters are derived. These are the maximum number of occupants leaving the zone, number of occupants leaving the hall within the target time, travel distances, waiting time and moving time of occupants in the airport terminal.

Thermophysical Optimization of Specialized Concrete Pavement Materials for Collection of Surface Heat Energy and Applications for Shallow Heat Storage

Great potential exists to use pavement structures to collect or store solar energy for heating and cooling of adjacent buildings, for example, airport terminals and shopping malls. Therefore, pavement materials comprising both conventional and unconventional concrete mixtures with a wide range of densities, thermal conductivities, specific heat capacities, and thermal diffusivities were investigated. The thermophysical properties were then used as inputs to a one-dimensional transient heat transport model to evaluate temperature changes at various depths at which heat might be abstracted or stored. Results indicated that a high diffusivity pavement (e.g., one that incorporated high conductive aggregates or metallic fibers, or both) could significantly enhance heat transfer as well as reduce thermal stresses across the concrete slab. However, a low diffusivity concrete could induce a more stable temperature at shallower depths and enable easier heat storage in the pavement, which would help to reduce the risk of damage caused by freeze–thaw cycling in cold regions.

A passenger movement forecast and optimisation system for airport terminals

This paper describes a system to forecast and optimise movements of the passengers inside airport terminal buildings. Three key technologies and their interactions are considered: firstly, the classification of passengers into different groups is described; secondly, the actual path-finding based on graph-theoretical methods is explained; thirdly, methods are introduced to reflect the spatial utilisation of the terminal floor space in the model. Each methodology is specifically selected to solve the designated problem in the best possible way. The main finding of this paper is the illustration of the interaction of these three different methodologies and how it can assist in passenger-handling processes on ground.

Software Assistants for Randomized Patrol Planning for the LAX Airport Police and the Federal Air Marshal Service

The increasing threat of terrorism makes security at major locations of economic or political importance a major concern. Limited security resources prevent complete security coverage, allowing adversaries to observe and exploit patterns in patrolling or monitoring, and enabling them to plan attacks that avoid existing patrols. The use of randomized security policies that are more difficult for adversaries to predict and exploit can counter their surveillance capabilities. We describe two applications, ARMOR and IRIS, that assist security forces in randomizing their operations. These applications are based on fast algorithms for solving large instances of Bayesian Stackelberg games. Police at the Los Angeles International Airport deploy ARMOR to randomize the placement of checkpoints on roads entering the airport and the routes of canine unit patrols within the airport terminals. The Federal Air Marshal Service has deployed IRIS in a pilot program to randomize the schedules of air marshals on international flights. This paper examines the design choices, information, and evaluation criteria that were critical to developing these applications.

An optimization model for wayfinding problems in terminal building

Passenger orientation (wayfinding) is one of the important factors for the layout design of airport terminals. It is common that some people have difficulties in locating their destinations in spite of availability of wayfinding aids. Visibility index is commonly used to evaluate the ease of wayfinding. However, there is a lack of studies for the determination of the appropriate locations for setting up wayfinding aids in airport terminals so as to enhance the ease of wayfinding. In this paper, a binary linear program is proposed for better allocation of directional signs for wayfinding. The proposed model can be widely applied to practical situations so as to improve the design of signage system in various enclosed environments including airport terminals, multi-function railway stations, and shopping malls.

Survey on passenger loading in the Hong Kong airport terminal

Emergency evacuation is the main concern in crowded airport terminals. Data on occupant loading are important for designing means of escape. However, very few field survey data on crowded terminals are available in the literature. There are queries concerning whether the data specified in the prescriptive codes are realistic in designing safety systems in modern terminals. More questions have been raised for those terminals using data, such as maximum floor area allowances per occupant, from the prescriptive codes which have not yet been verified for carrying out performance-based fire engineering design. In this study, passenger loading in the Hong Kong airport terminal was investigated. A field survey was carried out, in which the performance-based design was based on the occupant loading factor extracted from the prescriptive codes of Hong Kong. Transient passenger loadings of the airport in different seasons were compiled. The results were used to justify the maximum allowed loadings specified in design codes and standards.

Computational fluid dynamics simulation of the wind flow over an airport terminal building

Turbulence in the wake generated by wind flow over buildings or obstacles may produce complex flow patterns in downstream areas. Examples include the recirculating flow and wind deficit areas behind an airport terminal building and their potential impacts on the aircraft landing on nearby runways. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation of the wind flow over an airport terminal building was performed in this study of the effect of the building wake on landing aircraft. Under normal meteorological conditions, the studied airport terminal building causes limited effects on landing aircraft because most of the aircraft have already landed before entering the turbulent wake region. By simulating the approach of a tropical cyclone, additional CFD sensitivity tests were performed to study the impacts of building wake under extreme meteorological conditions. It was found that, in a narrow range of prevalent wind directions with wind speeds larger than a certain threshold value, a substantial drop in wind speed (>3.6 m/s) along the glide path of aircraft was observed in the building wake. Our CFD results also showed that under the most critical situation, a drop in wind speed as large as 6.4 m/s occurred right at the touchdown point of landing aircraft on the runway, an effect which may have a significant impact on aircraft operations. This study indicated that a comprehensive analysis of the potential impacts of building wake on aircraft operations should be carried out for airport terminals and associated buildings in airfields to ensure safe aviation operation under all meteorological conditions and to facilitate implementation of precautionary measures.

Long-Span Shallow Steel Arches Subjected to Fire Loading

This paper considers the thermo-elastic behaviour of shallow steel arches of long span, which are deployed in large roofing applications such as airport terminals, during a fire. The analysis of shallow arches requires recourse to geometrically non-linear analysis, which is further complicated by the nature of the thermal loading which may occur under a fire and of the degradation of the material properties of steel during a fire. A general technique based on the principle of virtual work is developed, and the analysis results in a formulation in closed form, which includes the stiffness of a tie between the supports of an arch and the supporting columns. It illustrates that these long span structural arch roofing elements are stressed at a low enough level to, in general, preclude considering inelastic effects during a typical fire, so that the simplifying assumptions of elastic behaviour are valid. Guidance is suggested for preliminary design purposes.

Evaluation of Roadway Guide Signs at Pearson International Airport in Toronto, Canada

A new terminal building resulting in the expansion of the road network was built at Pearson International Airport in Toronto, Canada. A laboratory study was carried out to assess the effectiveness of the proposed guide signs. Participants' decision times and the accuracy of the lane choices selected to reach a provided destination were measured as they responded to a sequence of road signs guiding them into and out of the airport presented on a desktop computer. The key results were as follows: participants showed high response accuracies and fast response times for signs for airport entry, the split between terminals, and the split between arrivals and departures; signs listing the airport terminals for nine airlines on each sign were associated with excessive response times; the split to parking at the arrivals–departures–parking decision point was misunderstood by one-third to one-half of drivers, who assumed that they could continue to the curbside, expecting to find parking there; and the current widely used car rental pictogram was poorly understood, and a new alternative design was preferred by participants.

The costs of peak-load demand: An application to Gran Canaria airport

Many airports suffer from peak-load demand problems. To meet unconstrained demand at peak periods, they often invest in extra capacity that may be under used at other times. We use data from the airport in Gran Canaria to illustrate that costs associated with the peak-load problem are not only those related to the new investment. This paper provides a methodology for analyzing the costs arisen due to the peak-load demand, to explore alternative airport policies and to illustrate the problem of congestion at airport terminals. The results suggest that a situation in which airports differentiate charges by peak and off-peak days would be much desirable.

The welfare effects of the allocation of airlines to different terminals

Many airports around the world have recently built, rebuilt or are in the process of constructing new terminals. Incumbent airlines and new entrants must be allocated to the new and old facilities. When spaces at airport terminals are directly allocated, the allocation should be done by taking into account the implications for airlines’ competition and social welfare, given the airlines’ network configuration. We use a theoretical model in which two airlines compete in prices with differentiated products for a given network structure. The model shows that, in general, if airlines are allocated to different terminals, the level of competition is reduced, the ticket prices are higher and the consumer surplus and social welfare are lower. Only in some routes, and under certain conditions on the market size, ticket prices may be lower.

Air Rail Links and Risk Analysis of Prague Airport Project

This paper describes the problems related to the integration of air and railway transport, which require building railway connections to hub airports, especially networks of long distance railways and high-speed tracks that link large cities with airport terminals. It presents and analyzes some solutions that have been implemented in Europe and focuses on a similar project which is currently being prepared in the Czech Republic at the dynamically growing international airport in Prague. For the final decision making process concerning the possibilities of a rail connection between Prague city and its airport a comprehensive comparative study, including risk analysis, was processed by the Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Transportation Sciences.

A generic system dynamics based tool for airport terminal performance analysis

Decision making for airport terminal planning, design and operations is a challenging task, since it should consider significant trade-offs regarding alternative operational policies and physical terminal layout concepts. Existing models and tools for airport terminal analysis and performance assessment are too specific (i.e., models of specific airports) or general simulation platforms that require substantial airport modelling effort. In addition, they are either too detailed (i.e., microscopic) or too aggregate (i.e., macroscopic), affecting, respectively, the flexibility of the model to adapt to any airport and the level of accuracy of the results obtained. Therefore, there is a need for a generic decision support tool that will incorporate sufficient level of detail for assessing airport terminal performance. To bridge this gap, a mesoscopic model for airport terminal performance analysis has been developed, that strikes a balance between flexibility and realistic results, adopting a system dynamics approach. The proposed model has a modular architecture and interface, enabling quick and easy model building and providing the capability of being adaptable to the configuration and operational characteristics of a wide spectrum of airport terminals in a user-friendly manner. The capabilities of the proposed model have been demonstrated through the analysis of the Athens International Airport terminal.

Airport terminal capacity planning

The airport terminal capacity planning problem deals with determining the optimal design and expansion capacities for different areas of the terminal in the presence of uncertainty with regards to future demand levels and expansion costs. Analytical modeling of passenger flow in airport terminals under transient demand patterns is especially difficult due to the complex structure of a terminal. Because of this difficulty, the airport terminal capacity planning problem has not been studied in a holistic fashion, such that studies in this area either do not account for expandability or focus only on one particular area of the terminal. In this study, we consider the airport terminal capacity planning problem as a whole. In this regard, we first derive time functions to approximate maximum delays in passageways and processing stations of an airport terminal. We then use these delay functions to develop a multistage stochastic programming model based on a multicommodity flow network representation of the whole airport terminal. The solution of the model, for which we develop an efficient solution algorithm, provides optimal capacity requirements for each area in an airport terminal during the initial building phase, as well as the optimal expansion policy under stochastic future demand. The results of the study are applicable to all similar queuing networks, including other types of passenger terminals.

Using Game Theory for Los Angeles Airport Security

Security at major locations of economic or political importance is a key concern around the world, particularly given the threat of terrorism. Limited security resources prevent full security coverage at all times, which allows adversaries to observe and exploit patterns in selective patrolling or monitoring; for example, they can plan an attack avoiding existing patrols. Hence, randomized patrolling or monitoring is important, but randomization must provide distinct weights to different actions based on their complex costs and benefits. To this end, this article describes a promising transition of the latest in multiagent algorithms into a deployed application. In particular, it describes a software assistant agent called AR MOR (assistant for randomized monitoring over routes) that casts this patrolling and monitoring problem as a Bayesian Stackelberg game, allowing the agent to appropriately weigh the different actions in randomization, as well as uncertainty over adversary types. ARMOR combines two key features. It uses the fastest known solver for Bayesian Stackelberg games called DOBSS, where the dominant mixed strategies enable randomization; and its mixed‐initiative‐based interface allows users occasionally to adjust or override the automated schedule based on their local constraints. ARMOR has been successfully deployed since August 2007 at the Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) to randomize checkpoints on the roadways entering the airport and canine patrol routes within the airport terminals. This article examines the information, design choices, challenges, and evaluation that went into de signing ARMOR.

Beijing Airport Terminal 3

AbstractBetween October 2003 and July 2004, Arup, in a joint venture with the Dutch airport planners NACO and the architects Foster & Partners, designed the Terminal and Ground Transportation Centre needed for the 2008 Olympic games at Beijing Airport. Work commenced on site in March 2004 and ended almost four years later with the opening ceremony in February 2008. This was the team's third airport together, the forerunners being Stansted Airport, London, in the late 1980s and Chek Lap Kok Airport, Hong Kong, in the late 1990s. For each terminal the basic engineering diagram is similar.The design of airport terminals is predominantly influenced by functionality. Externally, they are constrained by the movements of land transportation systems on one side and aircraft on the other. Internally, large numbers of people and baggage must flow from entrances to departure gates or arrivals gates to exits. Both the non‐public areas, like the baggage‐handling facilities, and the public areas need column‐free spaces to provide maximum flexibility and unimpeded passenger flow.Forces in roofs and floors increase with the square of the span and result in large member sizes, but these must be limited because the overall height of airport facilities is restricted. Furthermore, a deep roof structure will impair the ability for natural light to pass through the roof into the building's interior. Both requirements can only be achieved with a carefully integrated design.Airport terminals are characterized by the fact that the climatic and other physical conditions for which they must be designed vary across the world. For example, whereas Chek Lap Kok had to withstand typhoon wind loads and is located in a subtropical climate, Beijing is in an active seismic zone and experiences large seasonal temperature fluctuations. However, they must be able to accommodate the same aeroplanes worldwide while exhibiting their own form with respect to geometry, modularity, repetition and the use of information technology in the design, analysis, specification and fabrication.Today, fabrication technology is changing rapidly thanks to the application of computerized analysis and fabrication methods in engineering. This in turn influences the structural concept and design. A manifestation of this is illustrated below.