Airborne Lead Levels Research Articles

Assessment of the Effectiveness of Ventilation Controls in Managing Airborne and Surface Lead Levels at a Newly Commissioned Indoor Shooting Range.

Lead levels at a new indoor target shooting range were assessed using both personal and environmental air monitoring methods. Surface swabs were collected from representative locations throughout the range prior to, and at the conclusion of, shooting. Personal samples were compared against the current Australian Workplace Exposure Standards with all results exceeding statutory limits. Static environmental samples exceeded the Air National Environmental Protection Measures (NEPM) air quality standard. Surface swabs showed significant increases from pre- to post-shooting with levels exceeding recommended limits. The performance of the mechanical ventilation system was also assessed and airflow levels were below the required rate at all test locations when compared against the values recommended by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Users of the indoor shooting range are at risk of potential exposure to hazardous levels of lead. It was recommended the ventilation system be reviewed by a suitably qualified ventilation engineer to ensure it is operating within the required parameters and able to transport generated lead contaminant away from the shooters breathing zone. A thorough cleaning regime should be implemented by the club to minimise surface lead loadings throughout the facility.

The integrated effect of various small arm weapons and ammunition types on the airborne lead levels

The integrated effect of various small arm weapons and ammunition types on the airborne lead levels

Occupational Lead Exposures among University Police Officers and Instructors at an Outdoor Shooting Range in Southcentral Kentucky

There is a potentially high risk of lead exposure among police officers and instructors at an outdoor firing range. In the United States, occupational lead exposure remains an important and significant public health problem. Lead causes both acute and chronic adverse health effects in multiple human organ systems. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has promulgated a Permissible Exposure Limit and Action Level of 50 µg/m3 and 30 µg/m3 for lead averaged over an 8-hour period, respectively (general industry standards). Excessive lead exposures have been previously reported in several studies that evaluated groups of firearm shooters and instructors at firing ranges. Many of those studies focused mainly on personal lead exposures at either indoor or covered outdoor firing ranges. The present study was conducted with a sample of 17 university police officers (14 shooters and 3 instructors) to assess their occupational lead exposures at an uncovered outdoor firing range in Bowling Green, Kentucky. The study occurred over a period of three days during the months of June and July. The results showed that personal exposures to lead ranged from a concentration of 5.5 to 146 µg/m3. In addition, personal exposures reported for some police officers significantly exceeded OSHA’s general industry lead standards, without consideration of the use of personal protective equipment. The use of copper-jacketed ammunition and personal protective equipment combined with adequate work practices are highly recommended for this group of police officers and instructors. The effective implementation of proactive control measures is necessary to reduce airborne lead levels and invariably minimize potential inhalation and absorption of lead by police officers at firing ranges.

Airborne lead levels stay steady in Paris

Airparif, which monitors air quality in Paris, has released more data after the blaze at the Notre-Dame de Paris Cathedral last month. The readings were taken in the city’s 18th arrondissement, whi...

Reducing Lead and Silica Dust Exposures in Small-Scale Mining in Northern Nigeria.

An ongoing health crisis across a large area of Northern Nigeria has resulted in hundreds of deaths and thousands of cases of lead poisoning from artisanal small-scale gold mining. Occupational Knowledge International (OK International) and Doctors Without Borders/Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) have formed a partnership to conduct a pilot project to introduce safer mining practices in selected communities. The primary objective was to reduce lead exposures among artisanal small-scale miners and minimize take home exposures by reducing dust contamination on clothing and body surfaces. Personal air samples were collected from miners and ore processors before and after the introduction of wet spray misting in mine processing activities to crush and grind gold ore. We measured reductions in total airborne lead and respirable silica dust levels. A total of 44 air samples were collected for airborne lead using NIOSH method 7082 and 29 air samples for respirable silica dust with NIOSH method 7500. Low-cost interventions to convert dry ore processing to wet methods with spray misting were effective at reducing arithmetic mean airborne lead levels by 95%. Mean airborne respirable silica (quartz) was reduced by 80% following the introduction of wet spray misting. Differences in geometric means between wet and dry ore processing methods were statistically significant for both airborne lead and respirable silica. This pilot project has been successful in working cooperatively with miners to provide them with the necessary information and tools to reduce exposures in mining and processing, and minimize off-site contamination. As silica dust is a significant risk factor for silicosis and tuberculosis (TB), this intervention could provide public health benefits to small-scale mining communities even in areas without significant lead concentrations in the ore. Significant reductions in respirable silica and lead exposures are feasible in low-resource, small-scale mining communities.

An Examination of Blood Lead Levels in Thai Nielloware Workers

ObjectivesThe objectives of this study were to determine the lead levels in blood samples from nielloware workers, to determine airborne lead levels, to describe the workers' hygiene behaviors, and to ascertain and describe any correlations between lead levels in blood samples and lead levels in airborne samples.MethodsBlood samples and airborne samples from 45 nielloware workers were collected from nielloware workplaces in Nakhon Sri Thammarat Province, Thailand. Lead levels were determined by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS), at a wavelength of 283.3 nm. FAAS was used especially adequate for metals at relatively high concentration levels.ResultsThe geometric mean of the 45 airborne lead levels was 81.14 µg/m3 (range 9.0-677.2 µg/m3). The geometric mean blood lead level of the 45 workers was 16.25 µg/dL (range 4.59-39.33 µg/dL). No worker had a blood lead level > 60 µg/dL. A statistically significantly positive correlation was found between airborne lead level and blood lead levels (r = 0.747, p < 0.01). It was observed that personal hygiene was poor; workers smoked and did not wash their hands before drinking or eating. It was concluded that these behaviors had a significant correlation with blood lead levels (p < 0.001).ConclusionImprovements in working conditions and occupational health education are required due to the correlation found between blood leads and airborne lead levels.

Airborne lead levels in the Korean peninsula: characterization of temporal and spatial patterns and cancer risk analysis

This study collected long-term airborne lead concentrations in the Korean peninsula and analyzed their temporal, spatial, and cancer risk characterization. Approximately, 12,000 airborne samples of total suspended particulate (TSP) were collected from 30 ambient air monitoring stations in inland (Daegu, Daejeon, Gwangju, and Seoul) cities and portal cities (Incheon, Busan, and Ulsan) over a period of 7 years (2004-2010). High volume air samplers were employed to collect daily TSP samples during the second week of the consecutive months throughout the entire study period. The concentrations of Pb extracted from the TSP samples were analyzed using either inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission or flame atomic absorption spectrometry. The long-term high mean Pb concentrations were observed in the port cities including Incheon (88 ± 18 ng/m(3)), Ulsan (61 ± 7 ng/m(3)), and Busan (58 ± 6 ng/m(3)). In the temporal analysis, seasonal mean Pb levels were relatively higher in winter and spring than those in summer and fall. In the spatial analysis, the mean Pb levels in spring, winter, and fall from Incheon, which showed the highest seasonal concentrations except summer, were 110 ± 19, 101 ± 18, and 76 ± 23 ng/m(3), respectively. In summer, the highest seasonal mean Pb level was observed in the largest industrial city and the second port city, Ulsan (78 ± 15 ng/m(3)), followed by Incheon (65 ± 13 ng/m(3)). The estimated excess cancer risk analysis showed that inhalation of Pb could result in cancer for one or two persons per million of population in the Korean peninsula.

Evaluation of airborne lead levels in storage battery workshops and some welding environments in Kumasi metropolis in Ghana

Airborne lead levels were assessed in nine workshops, three each from battery, electronic repair, and welding sources within the Kumasi Metropolis in Ghana. Samples were collected at 0, 2.5, and 5.0 m away from the emission source at the workshops during working hours and another at 5.0 m during break hours. Airborne lead particulates were collected and analyzed using the filter membrane technique and flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry, respectively. There were significant differences (p < or = 0.05) among the air lead levels from the workshops. Workshop 3b produced the highest significant values of air lead concentrations of 2,820.31 +/- 53.89, 2,406.74 +/- 71.87, 754.55 +/- 72.52, and 549.01 +/- 67.30 microg/m(3) at distances of 0, 2.5, 5.0, and 5.0 m (break-time measurement), respectively, while workshop 1w significantly produced the lowest air lead concentration values of 261.06 +/- 21.60, 190.92 +/- 36.90, 86.43 +/- 16.26, and 61.05 +/- 3.88 microg/m(3) at distances of 0, 2.5, 5.0, and 5.0 m (break-time measurement), respectively. The air lead levels reduced with distance from emission source at the workshops. At all the distances of measurement at working hours, the airborne lead levels were higher than the World Health Organization standard of 50 microg/m(3) and exceeded the threshold limit values of 100 to 150 microg/m(3) recommended in most jurisdictions. Workers and people in the immediate environs were exposed to air lead levels that were too high by most international standards, thus posing a serious threat to their health.

Urban Airborne Lead: X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy Establishes Soil as Dominant Source

BackgroundDespite the dramatic decrease in airborne lead over the past three decades, there are calls for regulatory limits on this potent pediatric neurotoxin lower even than the new (2008) US Environmental Protection Agency standard. To achieve further decreases in airborne lead, what sources would need to be decreased and what costs would ensue? Our aim was to identify and, if possible, quantify the major species (compounds) of lead in recent ambient airborne particulate matter collected in El Paso, TX, USA.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe used synchrotron-based XAFS (x-ray absorption fine structure) to identify and quantify the major Pb species. XAFS provides molecular-level structural information about a specific element in a bulk sample. Pb-humate is the dominant form of lead in contemporary El Paso air. Pb-humate is a stable, sorbed complex produced exclusively in the humus fraction of Pb-contaminated soils; it also is the major lead species in El Paso soils. Thus such soil must be the dominant source, and its resuspension into the air, the transfer process, providing lead particles to the local air.Conclusions/SignificanceCurrent industrial and commercial activity apparently is not a major source of airborne lead in El Paso, and presumably other locales that have eliminated such traditional sources as leaded gasoline. Instead, local contaminated soil, legacy of earlier anthropogenic Pb releases, serves as a long-term reservoir that gradually leaks particulate lead to the atmosphere. Given the difficulty and expense of large-scale soil remediation or removal, fugitive soil likely constrains a lower limit for airborne lead levels in many urban settings.

Use of Field‐Portable X‐Ray Fluorescence (FPXRF) Analyzer to Measure Airborne Lead Levels in Korean Workplaces

We evaluated the possibility of applying field-portable x-ray fluorescence (FPXRF) analysis as a rapid, on-site and near real-time method for evaluating airborne lead contamination in Korean workplaces. A total of 287 airborne lead filter samples were measured in 12 lead-using workplaces during routine industrial hygienic monitoring procedures as required by Korean government regulations. All filter samples were collected using the standard industrial hygiene sampling protocol described in NIOSH Method 7300 using closed-face 37-mm cassettes with preloaded cellulose ester membrane filters with a pore size of 0.8 microm. The samples were first analyzed using the non-destructive, FPXRF analytical method (NIOSH method 7702), and then subsequently analyzed using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrophotometry (ICP) (NIOSH method 7300) as a reference analytical method. Pair-wise comparison of filter samples using the paired t-test revealed no statistically significant differences between the two methods over a wide range of airborne lead levels (0.018-0.201 microg/m(3)) either over the industries assessed or separately in the 12 lead-using workplaces. Linear regression of the data between the ICP and FPXRF methods produced a slope of 1.03, a y-intercept of 0.13 microg/sample, and a coefficient of determinant (r(2)) of 0.975 for all the data. For samples in the range from 0 to 100 microg, the corresponding values were 1.07, -1.20 microg/sample, and 0.925, respectively. There were no significant differences in the regression analyses of the three industry types (r(2)=0.964-0.982). Our data suggest that FPXRF data are highly correlated with those from the laboratory-based ICP method in terms of accuracy, precision, and bias. Therefore, FPXRF can be used for the rapid, on-site analysis of lead air-filter samples for values up to 26 microg/sample prior to laboratory confirmation by the ICP method.

Lead in a Baltimore Shipyard

The goal was to monitor the effectiveness of the Coast Guard Yard's lead program by comparing a shipyard period in 1991 to one in 2002-2003. Comparisons of airborne lead levels by paint removal techniques, airborne lead levels by welding techniques, and blood lead levels of workers were evaluated by chi2 analysis. Airborne lead levels in paint removal techniques decreased over time for all methods used. Airborne lead levels in welding techniques decreased over time for all methods used. Blood lead levels of the high-risk group revealed a 2-fold reduction (prevalence rate ratio = 8.3; 95% confidence interval, 3.7-18.6) and in the low-risk group revealed a 1.6-fold reduction (prevalence rate ratio = 6.2; 95% confidence interval, 0.86-44.7). The Coast Guard Yard runs an effective lead program that exceeds the national Healthy People 2010 goal for lead. The results validate the Coast Guard Yard's use of air-line respirators and lead-free paint on all vessels.

Blood Lead Level in Schoolchildren and Airborne Lead Levels in Mexico City, Mexico

P-425 Introduction: Lead exposure is a public health problem specially in children. In Mexico, there are different source of exposure to explain the blood lead levels (BLL) in children. These sources include the lead pollution by gasoline fumes and glazed pottery. This study describes the current BLL in schoolchildren and the relation with different sources including the reduction of airborne lead levels. Methods: Cross-sectional study was made on 853 children that visit the outpatient clinic of three pediatric hospitals. A blood sample was taken from each participant to measure the blood lead level. Information concerning variables of interest was obtained through the administration of a questionnaire. Additionally we analyze the trend of level of airborne lead (LAL) registered by Automatical Environmental Monitoring System for 1997 to 2004. For significance we used χ2 and Student t tests and a lineal regression model. Results: The mean annual LAL during 1997 - 2004 was 0.094μg/ m3; therefore the highest value was 0.1499 μg/ m3 in 1997 and the lowest value was 0.0599 μg/ m3 in 2004. The median of BLL was 5.7μg/dl, DE ± 4.4 (min: 0.4μg/dl; max: 54μg/dl). The 29% of the participants reported that in their household cook with glazed clay pots and they had levels 10μg/dl higher than children who use other (p = 0.000). The difference between the medians was 2 (p = 0.000). The model showed a relationship between BLL and cooking with glazed clay (p = 0.000) or keeping foods in this type of material (p = 0.023). Discussion and Conclusion: The elimination of lead in gasoline contributed significantly to the reduction of LAL, as reflected in this population’s BLL. Nevertheless, domestic exposure via use of glazed ceramics continues to be related to the BLL, particularly from cooking or keeping foods in this type of container.

Tendencia de los niveles de plomo en la atmósfera de la zona metropolitana de la Ciudad de México: 1988-1998

To describe the trends in airborne lead levels and their association with the control measures implemented from 1988 to 1998 to phase out lead from gasoline that included the introduction of a lead-free gasoline and the use of catalytic converters in automobiles in Mexico City. Data of atmospheric lead levels were obtained from the 9 field stations included in the local air quality monitoring network (RMMA). Trends for airborne lead are shown by monitor, monitoring area and for the entire metropolitan zone. Analysis of data was performed using linear regression models including auto correlation analysis. The models were validated by standard diagnostic techniques using student residuals analysis. The introduction of lead-free gasoline and the use of catalytic converters decreased the airborne lead levels by 23% while the slow elimination of lead from gasoline produced a cumulative decrease of 89% during the period and in all areas studied. The strategy implemented to reduce sources of airborne lead pollution had an important impact on atmospheric lead levels. Health risks of this environmental hazard are now primarily due to less important sources and to particular occupational exposures. The English version of this paper is available at: http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html.

An evaluation of recent blood lead levels in Port Pirie, South Australia

The Port Pirie Lead Program commenced in 1984. The abatement program involves identification of children with elevated blood lead levels, house decontamination, soil treatment, development of heavily vegetated buffer zones around the smelter, family education and support and community education. Since 1984 the smelter has also implemented substantial new emission controls and environmental improvements. Blood lead and air monitoring programs as well as investigations of emission sources, ongoing household contamination and infant exposure mechanisms are in place. Although capillary blood lead monitoring has shown a significant decrease in the mean blood lead levels of the children, 61% of children aged 1–4 years still exceed 10 μg/dl, with 28% at or above 15 μg/dl. Re-entrainment of lead from the contaminated areas within the city is only a small contributor to air-borne lead levels compared with that from the smelter and its environs. The smelter has undertaken extensive work to reduce windborne fugitive emissions. While attempts to demonstrate reductions in air lead have been hampered by large annual variations in wind speed and direction, air lead studies have confirmed that only small losses are now arising from the stockpile area of the smelter site. Evidence suggests that worker hygiene improvements, relocation of children to lower exposure suburbs, community education, house decontamination, specific measures for individual children with elevated blood lead, and avoidance of tank rainwater have all been partially successful. A substantial investigation program has refocused intervention efforts towards reducing exposure from indoor environments during the first year of life and contributed to improved identification and ranking of ongoing smelter emission sources.

Relationship between lead levels on painted surfaces and percent lead in the particles aerosolized during lead abatement.

Quantifying airborne lead on lead abatement work sites is critical in assessing worker lead exposures. Airborne lead levels depend on both the concentration of aerosolized particles and the percent lead in those particles. The lead level on the painted surface being abated may affect the percent lead in aerosolized particles. Experiments were performed in the University of Cincinnati Environmental Test Chamber (volume approximately 24.3 m3) using wood doors painted with lead-based paint. Three methods were used for paint removal: dry scraping, wet scraping, and dry machine sanding. Particles aerosolized during lead abatement activities were collected on filters using the Button Personal Inhalable Aerosol Samplers (SKC Inc., Eighty Four, PA) mounted in the workers' breathing zone. The filters were subsequently analyzed for percent lead in the particles. A portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) instrument (NITON-700, NITON Inc., Bedford, MA) was used to measure surface lead levels of the doors. The accuracy of the XRF instrument was verified by testing standard reference materials prepared by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and by Princeton Gamma Tech Inc. It was also verified by relating XRF results from painted door surfaces to laboratory lead analysis data obtained from paint chip samples taken from the same painted surfaces (r2 = 0.81, p < 0.001). A highly significant relationship (r2 = 0.83, p < 0.001) was found between the XRF readings and the percent lead in the particles aerosolized during dry scraping. No significant relationship was found for wet scraping (r2 = 0.09, p = 0.56) or dry machine sanding (r2 = 0.002, p = 0.92). The relationship between surface lead levels and percent lead in particles was found to be dependent on the paint removal method. This variation was attributed to the difference in water absorption property of the paint layers and the different particle aerosolization mechanisms inherent in each paint removal method.

The usefulness of air quality monitoring and air quality impact studies before the introduction of reformulated gasolines in developing countries. Mexico City, a real case study

Urban air pollution is a major environmental problem in several developing countries in the world. This phenomenon seems to be related to the growth of both the urban population in large cities and the number of old and poorly maintained car fleets. The expected rise of population in the next century in countries which suffer from lack of capital for air pollution control, means that there is a great potential for the worsening of the air quality. The worldwide promoted policy to phase out lead in gasolines has not proved to be an adequate option in improving the environmental quality. Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA) represents a case in which the introduction of reformulated gasolines in an old car fleet has given as a result the reduction of the airborne lead levels but has worsened the ozone concentration of its urban atmosphere. This paper critically analyzes the chronological evolution of the ozone air pollution problem in MCMA after the successive occurrence of several changes in the formulation of low leaded and unleaded gasolines. It also presents evidences of the usefulness potential of air quality monitoring activities and air quality impact studies on the definition of realistic fuel reformulation policies of developing countries.

Airborne lead and particulate levels in Semarang, Indonesia and potential health impacts

Spatial and temporal variation in airborne lead and total suspended particulates was examined in the city of Semarang, Indonesia, and surrounding area. Both airborne lead and TSP varied significantly with the type of urban development. Mean urban airborne lead levels were 0.35 μg/m 3 in the highway zone, 0.95 μg/m 3 in the residential zone, and 0.99 μg/m 3 in the commercial zone. Airborne lead levels in the industrial zone were significantly higher than all other areas, with a mean of 8.41 μg/m 3. Airborne lead concentrations of this magnitude have not been reported in Indonesia previously. Mean TSP levels ranged from 115.5 μg/m 3 to 165.8 μg/m 3 in urban areas. Increased levels of TSP were associated with areas adjacent to major transportation routes. On a seasonal basis, TSP levels were significantly lower during the rainy season, while mean airborne lead levels did not show a significant seasonal trend. Observed ambient pollution levels were translated into potential heath impacts based on previously established relationships. Increased levels of TSP pollution near major roads was estimated to result in a 1.6% increase in mortality for all causes of death and a 7.9% increase in mortality due to respiratory disease. Estimated child blood lead levels indicated possible lead toxicity among Semarang children.

Evaluation of Needle Gun and Abrasive Blasting Technologies in Bridge Paint Removal Practices

ABSTRACT This paper reviews the results of a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) study that assessed needle gun technology as an alternative to conventional abrasive blasting technology to remove lead-based paint from steel bridges in western New York State. The study analyzed the operational and logistical aspects as they relate to worker health and safety, environmental protection, hazardous waste generation, and costs as compared to those arising from conventional abrasive blasting. In this 1992 EPA study, the costs and the product quality aspects favored conventional abrasive blasting over the needle gun technology for removing lead paint. However, abrasive blasting exposed workers to airborne lead levels that exceeded Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) as established by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), as well as emitting high levels of lead-contaminated dusts and debris into the environment. It was estimated that more than 500 lbs of lead-contaminated spent abrasives and paint waste were released into the environment during paint removal operations. The needle gun system reduced (up to 97.5%) the generation of hazardous waste and the airborne concentrations (up to 99%) of respirable dusts and lead-containing particulates generated during paint removal operations. However, labor costs for the needle gun were three times higher than those for abrasive blasting primarily because of slower production rates that necessitated more operating personnel. The higher labor costs of the needle gun are partially offset by the increased costs associated with the expendable abrasive blast media and hazardous waste disposal. In the EPA study, the productivity of the needle gun system was 12.2 ft2/hr vs. 147.5 ft2/hr for abrasive blasting. A post blast was needed for the needle gun system to meet surface preparation specifications. When factoring in the costs of full containment structures to meet OSHA's 1993 Lead Exposure in Construction regulation, the needle gun system has the potential to be economically competitive with conventional abrasive blasting.

Lead, chromium, and cadmium exposure during abrasive blasting.

An evaluation of lead, cadmium, and chromium exposure was conducted during abrasive blasting of a steel bridge to remove paint in preparation for repainting. Airborne lead concentrations were measured at several locations inside the containment structure, as well as near the workers' breathing zones. Airborne cadmium and chromium were also measured in the containment area. Blood lead levels were monitored in each worker. Airborne lead and cadmium levels in containment exceeded the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's permissible exposure limits by factors of 219 and 3.1, respectively. The use of supplied air-blasting helmets will not effectively reduce workers' lead exposure to the permissible exposure limits when airborne levels are as high as were measured in this study. Studies are needed to evaluate additional engineering controls and alternative paint removal methods. Evaluation of workers' exposure to lead and other hazardous metals is needed for projects involving abrasive blasting. Medical surveillance for cadmium and lead may be necessary for similar projects.

Phasing out leaded gasoline will not end lead poisoning in developing countries.

Research ArticleOpen AccessPhasing out leaded gasoline will not end lead poisoning in developing countries. J Finkelman J Finkelman Search for more papers by this author Published:1 January 1996https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9610410Cited by:5AboutSectionsPDF ToolsDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InReddit "Phasing out leaded gasoline will not end lead poisoning in developing countries.." Environmental Health Perspectives, 104(1), pp. 10–11FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited by Kamavisdar A, Khanwalkar S and Patel R (2006) Analytical Studies on Lead Pollution in Roadside Soil Samples of Raipur and Bhilai, Chhattisgarh State, India, Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 10.1080/00103620500196515, 36:15-16, (2209-2218), Online publication date: 1-Sep-2005. Ruiz-Fernández A, Páez-Osuna F, Urrutia-Fucugauchi J, Preda M and Rehault I (2004) Historical trace metal fluxes in the Mexico City Metropolitan Zone as evidenced by a sedimentary record from the Espejo de los Lirios lake, J. Environ. Monit., 10.1039/B316583C, 6:5, (473-480) Browne D, Husni A and Risk M (1999) Airborne lead and particulate levels in Semarang, Indonesia and potential health impacts, Science of The Total Environment, 10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00022-4, 227:2-3, (145-154), Online publication date: 1-Mar-1999. Eide R, Tvinnereim H, Fosse G, Kjøsnes M and Nyhaug A (1998) Lead and cadmium in primary teeth from Illinois, USA, International Journal of Environmental Studies, 10.1080/00207239808711164, 55:1-2, (25-39), Online publication date: 1-Jun-1998. Romero A (2016) The Environmental Impact of Leaded Gasoline in Venezuela, The Journal of Environment & Development, 10.1177/107049659600500404, 5:4, (434-438), Online publication date: 1-Dec-1996. Vol. 104, No. 1 January 1996Metrics About Article Metrics Publication History Originally published1 January 1996Published in print1 January 1996 Financial disclosuresPDF download License information EHP is an open-access journal published with support from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health. All content is public domain unless otherwise noted. Note to readers with disabilities EHP strives to ensure that all journal content is accessible to all readers. However, some figures and Supplemental Material published in EHP articles may not conform to 508 standards due to the complexity of the information being presented. If you need assistance accessing journal content, please contact [email protected]. Our staff will work with you to assess and meet your accessibility needs within 3 working days.