Air-cooled System Research Articles

Operation Data Analysis and Performance Optimization of the Air-Cooled System in a Coal-Fired Power Plant Based on Machine Learning Algorithms

Operation Data Analysis and Performance Optimization of the Air-Cooled System in a Coal-Fired Power Plant Based on Machine Learning Algorithms

Numerical study on air-cooled battery thermal management system considering the sheer altitude effect

Due to energy shortage and environmental pollution, vehicles and aircraft powered by Li-ion batteries have now received widespread attention. Among various types of battery thermal management systems (BTMSs), the air-cooled BTMS is still the preferred choice due to its affordability, longevity, and simplicity. To ensure the reliable operation of electric vehicles and aircraft at different altitudes, it is extremely meaningful and significant to study the thermal behavior of batteries at different altitudes. Therefore, for the investigation of altitude impact, this paper firstly proposes an indirect decoupling method to address the limitations of using ambient temperature as a single variable. Based on this, several different configurations of air-cooled BTMS have been investigated through numerical simulation. Then, for the tapering-type BTMS with the best thermal performance, the battery behavior at different altitudes is investigated and the influence law of sheer altitude factor is summarized. Subsequently, to address the thermal performance issues at higher altitudes, this research proposes three optimization measures, which include increasing inlet velocity, decreasing inlet temperature, and incorporating phase change material (PCM) layers, respectively. Ultimately, the entropy weight-TOPSIS method is adopted to seek the optimal measure at different parameters. The results indicate that as altitude increases from the standard altitude to 4000 m, the maximum temperature rises significantly, exceeding the permissible temperature range of Li-ion batteries. Besides, in order to effectively confine the maximum temperature within the permissible temperature range at an altitude of 4000 m, the inlet velocity should be increased by at least 2 m/s or the inlet temperature should be reduced by at least 3 °C. Among all optimized solutions, the solution with the addition of 0.4 mm PCM layers is the best based on the comprehensive evaluation of multiple indicators.

Thermal equalization design for the battery energy storage system (BESS) of a fully electric ship

The adoption of fully electric ships represents a significant step forward in addressing the environmental challenges of climate change and pollution in the shipping industry. This research details the optimized design of a battery energy storage system (BESS) and its air-cooling thermal management system for a 2000-ton bulk cargo ship. In comparison to the conventional flow splitter (FS-I), which divides airflow into 8 transverse branches, two novel designs—FS-II (dividing airflow into 2, 4, and 8 branches) and FS-III (dividing into 2, 4, 8, and 16 longitudinal and transverse branches)—were introduced. FS-II improves flow uniformity from 0.42 (FS-I) to 0.86 but results in an increased pressure drop up to 881.47 Pa. FS-III further enhances flow uniformity to 0.97 while reducing pressure drop to 191.99 Pa. The thermal performance of battery boxes with FS-I, FS-II, and FS-III was evaluated under extreme conditions and a complete voyage cycle. FS-III exhibited superior thermal regulation, maintaining Tmax consistently below 33.9°C during the entire voyage. These findings provide valuable insights for designing thermal management systems in electric ships.

Optimization of modeling and temperature control of air-cooled PEMFC based on TLBO-DE

The temperature control of the air-cooled proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is important for effective and safe operation. To develop a practical and precise controller, this study combines the Radial Basis Function (RBF) neural network with Back Propagation neural network adaptive Proportion Integration Differentiation (BP-PID), and then a metaheuristic algorithm is used to optimize the parameters of RBF-BP-PID for further improvement in temperature control. First, an air-cooled PEMFC system model is established. To match the simulation data with the experimental data, Teaching Learning Based Optimization–Differential Evolution (TLBO-DE) is proposed to identify the unknown parameters, and the maximum relative error is <3.5 %. Second, RBF neural network is introduced to identify the stack temperature and provide the accurate ∂y(k)∂u(k) for BP-PID, which solves the problem of using sign function sgn(∂y(k)∂u(k)) to approximate the ∂y(k)∂u(k) in BP-PID. Regarding the temperature control of air-cooled PEMFC, several controllers are compared, including PID, Fuzzy-PID, BP-PID and RBF-BP-PID. The proposed RBF-BP-PID achieves the best control effect, which reduces the integrated time and absolute error (ITAE) by 3.4 % and 15.8 % based on BP-PID in the startup and steady phases, respectively. Since the ∂y(k)∂u(k) provided by RBF changes softly and continuously during the control process, the parameters self-tuning ability of RBF-BP-PID is better than BP-PID. Third, to improve the control effect of RBF-BP-PID further, TLBO-DE is adopted to optimize the parameters of RBF neural network and BP neural network.

Integrated optimization of the building envelope and the HVAC system in office building retrofitting

Increasing the energy efficiency of existing buildings is the major strategy to reach carbon neutral targets, given that the building sector is a major emitter. In particular, one major part of building energy usage is the building heating, ventilation and air-cooling system, which are highly depending on the thermal performance of building envelope and increase the challenge of selecting optimal packages of energy efficiency measures. This paper thereby presents a method for optimizing the building envelope and heating, ventilation and air-cooling system. The simulation-based NSGA-III approach developed in this paper is based on coupling the dynamic simulation models created in EnergyPlus software with the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm, as the engine that performs an optimization process. A large domain of energy efficiency packages combined with heating, ventilation and air-cooling systems and building envelope are investigated to minimize energy consumption, retrofit cost and thermal discomfort in indoor environments, which including ideal loads air system, four pipe fan coil system and variable refrigerant flow system, insulation materials and insulation thickness for external walls and roof, different types of external windows, and window-wall ratio. An office building in Chongqing was chosen as a case study to demonstrate the practical implementation of the proposed method. The results show that the four pipe fan coil system was superior in the diversity and performance of the Pareto front. Then, the optimal packages were generated by a synthetic method, which have 58.57 kWh/m2 of energy consumption, 30.76 CNY/m2 of retrofit cost and 40.67 % of the percentage of thermal discomfort hours. The results also indicate that the yearly energy savings rates are 17.30 %, 23.05 % and 21.10 % separately for ideal loads air system, four pipe fan coil system and variable refrigerant flow system after performing optimization. These results highlight the importance and necessity of performing an optimization procedure for existing buildings to select the optimal retrofit measures.

Cooling performance enhanced by integrating multicomponent phase change material and compression spring into air-cooled battery module

In order to improve the cooling efficiency and temperature consistency of the air-cooled prismatic battery module, a novel multicomponent phase change material-spring plate (MPCM-SP) was developed in this work. The MPCM was formed by combining lauric acid (LA), polyethylene glycol (PEG), palmitic acid (PA), and carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT-COOH). The melting temperature of MPCM can be adjusted within the range 37 °C to 65 °C, and the associated latent heat of phase change varied from 159 J∙g−1 to 209 J∙g−1. The optimized proportions of LA, PEG, PA, and MWCNT-COOH achieved through multiple-objective optimization were 65.55 %, 7.07 %, 25.38 %, and 2.00 %, respectively. The cooling performance of the MPCM-SP was examined by experimental verification and numerical evaluation. The inclusion of MPCM-SP in the air-cooling system resulted in a reduction of 3.41 °C, 3.74 °C, and 3.32 °C in the maximum temperatures of the U-shaped, Z-shaped, and I-shaped battery modules, respectively. Moreover, the temperature difference was decreased by 3.60 °C, 3.16 °C, and 2.42 °C, respectively. Additionally, in comparison to a single battery, a battery equipped with MPCM-SP had a 32.8 % reduction in thermal deformation in the thickness direction under a thermal expansion coefficient of 4.06 × 10-6 K−1.

Numerical Investigation of the Thermal Performance of Air-Cooling System for a Lithium-Ion Battery Module Combined with Epoxy Resin Boards

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have the lead as the most used power source for electric vehicles and grid storage systems, and a battery thermal management system (BTMS) can ensure the efficient and safe operation of lithium-ion batteries. Epoxy resin board (ERB) offers a wide range of applications in LIBs due to its significant advantages such as high dielectric strength, electrical insulation, good mechanical strength, and stiffness. This study proposes an air-cooled battery module comprised of sixteen prismatic batteries incorporating an ERB layer between the batteries. To compare the performance of the ERB-based air-cooling system, two other air-cooling structures are also assessed in this study. Three-dimensional numerical models for the three cases are established in this paper, and the heat dissipation processes of the battery module under varying discharge rates (1C, 2C, and 5C) are simulated and analyzed to comprehensively evaluate the performance of the different cooling systems. Comparative simulations reveal that incorporating ERB into the battery assembly significantly reduces battery surface temperatures and promotes temperature uniformity across individual batteries and the entire pack at various discharge rates. Notably, under 5C discharge conditions, the ERB-based thermal management system achieves a maximum battery surface temperature increase of 16 °C and a maximum temperature difference of 8 °C between batteries. Additionally, this paper also analyzes the impact of battery arrangement on air-cooling system performance. Therefore, further optimization of the structural design or the integration of supplementary cooling media might be necessary for such demanding conditions.

A Y-Type Air-Cooled Battery Thermal Management System with a Short Airflow Path for Temperature Uniformity

A Y-type air-cooled structure has been proposed to improve the heat dissipation efficiency and temperature uniformity of battery thermal management systems (BTMSs) by reducing the flow path of air. By combining computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods, the influence of the depths of the distribution and convergence plenums on the airflow velocity through battery cells was analyzed to improve heat dissipation efficiency. Adjusting the width of the first and ninth cooling channels can change the air velocity of these two channels, thereby improving the temperature uniformity of the BTMS. Further discussion was conducted regarding the influences of inlet and outlet depths. When the inlet width and outlet width were 20 mm, the maximum temperature and maximum temperature difference of the Y-type BTMS were 39.84 °C and 0.066 °C at a discharge rate of 2.5 °C, respectively; these temperatures were 1.537 °C (3.68%) and 0.059 °C (47.2%) lower than those of the T-type model. Meanwhile, the energy consumption of the sample also decreased by 13.1%. The results indicate that the heat dissipation performance of the proposed Y-type BTMS was improved, achieving excellent temperature uniformity, and the energy consumption was also reduced.

Energy-exergy analysis and co-optimization of compressed cold air-cooling system for dry cutting machine tools

Energy-exergy analysis and co-optimization of compressed cold air-cooling system for dry cutting machine tools

Comparative assessment and optimization among several plenum shapes and positions for the forced air-cooled battery thermal management system

Plenum shape and position play a significant impact on the heat dissipation performance of battery pack with air-cooled structure. However, the existed plenum shape and position are simple. In this work, four different plenum shapes (slanted, convex, concave and stepped) of the battery thermal management system (BTMS) are designed. Then the influences of plenum shapes and positions (at the inlet, outlet, and inlet & outlet) on the heat dissipation performance of the battery are investigated, respectively. Subsequently, a single factor analysis is performed to obtain the range of the design parameters (Hin, Hout, Rin and Rout) in Design 6. Finally, a multi-objective optimization of Design 6 is carried out to further improve the thermal performance of BTMS. Numerical results demonstrate that: 1) For the significant improvement of the cooling ability, convex plenum is at the inlet & outlet whereas other shape ones are all at the inlet. 2) No matter where it is at the inlet, outlet, or inlet & outlet, the convex plenum achieves the excellent cooling effect in Z- and U-type air-cooled structures. 3) Design 6 (convex plenum at the inlet & outlet) exhibits the best cooling ability among all plenum shapes and positions. 4) The design parameters of the optimized Design 6 are Hin = 17.9 mm, Hout = 19 mm, Rin = 2100 mm and Rout = 2000 mm, and the maximum temperature and temperature difference respectively achieve a 35.06 % (18.921 K) and 76.98 % (19.923 K) reduction under such optimized design parameter settings in comparison with those of the benchmark (Design 9).

مقارنة األداء بين المبردات المبردة بالماء والمبردة بالهواء مع غاليات تعمل بالغاز الطبيعي والمقاومة الكهربائية لالستخدام في مستشفى ليبي

Libya is a large country in northern Africa and the majority of its land area is desert with high temperatures during the summer and cold temperatures during the winter. Therefore, HVAC systems are a very important aspect in building design and management. This research is a comparison of the performance of two HVAC systems in Libya, which are water-cooled and packaged air-cooled chillers for large buildings. This study utilized the simulation software eQUEST, which is based on DOE-2. Chiller systems are designed for a large hospital where the water-cooled (cooling towers) and packaged (dry condensers) are the heat rejection options. The boilers used for these systems utilize natural gas and electrical resistance as the source of heat for both chiller designs and their performance were compared. The performance was determined based on the energy consumption, and the energy efficiency ratio. Results showed that a water-cooled system, which needs water to operate, spends less electrical energy than a packaged air-cooled system, which does not need water to operate, to reject heat for the hospital building. Results also showed that the using natural gas for the boiler was far cheaper than electrical resistance. The study showed that using a water-cooled chiller with a natural gas powered boiler is the most efficient option for Libyan hospitals.

A novel solar tower simulator for hydrogen regeneration by thermo-catalytic cracking of Ammonia: Energy, Exergy, and CFD investigations

This paper presents a novel concept of a central solar tower-based hydrogen regeneration system by thermo-catalytic cracking of ammonia. This includes a closed volumetric receiver for ammonia heating and cracking, a 2.45 kWe high-concentration radiation source, and an air-cooling system for the radiation source. The thermodynamic analysis shows that the net solar-to-hydrogen generation efficiency, first law efficiency, and exergy efficiency are 31 %, 82 %, and 79.8 %, respectively, for the optical efficiency of 35 %, the conversion efficiency of 99 %, and the waste heat recovery fraction of 20 %. The simulations with an ammonia flow rate of 1 kg/hr and flux concentration of 1200 Suns show the regeneration of 1.27 kg H2/day at Jodhpur and 1.57 kg H2/day at Ladakh. Monte Carlo ray tracing simulations revealed that the developed radiation source provides an average flux of ∼ 2 MW/m2 onto a spot size of 20 mm with an efficiency of about 31 %. Reynolds-averaged Navier Stokes-based analyses are used to design a novel air-cooling system for the radiation source. The computations show that (a) an unequal distribution of air mass flow rates at the front mḟ and back mḃ, should be preferred with mḟ>mḃ, and (b) for a total mass flowrate of 0.1 kg/s with mḟmḃ = 4, the maximum surface temperature of reflectors and Xe-arc lamps is less than 315 K and 610 K, respectively. The investigations revealed the feasibility of the concept and provided valuable insight for the planned experimental assessment and scale-up of the solar tower simulator.

R-based neural networks decision model for water air cooler system

Water air cooler is a process that uses an evaporative system. In its first generation, there was no temperature sensor, and its fan was turned by an electric motor in an open loop system with a fixed speed. As well, the water’s flow and level in the tank are governed by a mechanical system, which is generally a floating ball attached to a shaft. In order to ameliorate this classical system with more advantages and performances, many ideas are included in subsequent generations such the integration of embedded systems, intelligent control and components of manufacturing materials. In this paper, the current study aims to integrate an intelligent system, which is the neural networks by using R language to give a smart decision model to command relays switching dedicated to control the electric motors, where the first one is tied up with a fan and the other to an electro-pump. The HC-SR04 ultrasonic and DHT11 sensors supervise the two desired parameters control, water level in the tank and the outside temperature successively.

A novel development of an unmanned surface vehicle directly powered by an air-cooled proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack

Most compact Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) used in water quality monitoring and maritime surveillance rely on lithium batteries. However, they're only ideal for short missions. This paper first fabricates a novel lightweight, air-cooled, high-power-density Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) stack with ultrathin steel bipolar plates as the primary power source for a self-made compact USV. This stack consists of 40 single cells and integrates a reliable air-cooled system, operating in parallel with a supercapacitor to enhance its performance. Experimental results show that this PEMFC-powered USV outperforms the main lithium battery-powered counterpart, offering an extended cruising range and better power stability and significantly increasing the cruising range from 8 km to 38 km when the PEMFC stack and the main lithium battery are of similar volume and weight. Integrating a low voltage purging logic with a 0.4 V threshold in the dead-end anode (DEA) mode results in a remarkable hydrogen utilization rate of up to 98%. Moreover, the average voltage of the PEMFC stack with the supercapacitor consistently exceeds that of the stack without the supercapacitor by approximately 0.125 V, mitigating the impact of rapid load changes. The results verify the feasibility of the proposed air-cooled PEMFC-powered USV.

Ways to overcome the barrier during the transition of asynchronous motors to the energy efficiency class IE5

Purpose. To provide a comprehensive analytical review on ways to increase the energy efficiency of induction motors and identify those suitable for transitioning fixed speed induction motors to IE5 level. Methodology. A thorough study of research and development in the field of increasing the energy efficiency of induction motors for various purposes was conducted. The experience of the development of traction induction motors of electric vehicles as dynamically developing is extrapolated. Results. It was established that the main limiting factor in increasing the energy efficiency of induction motors to the IE5 level is its thermal state. Analysis of ways to improve the efficiency of induction motors indicates the need for their complex application. It is most expedient to optimize and improve the elements of the air-cooling system of induction motors. To carry out the research, it is necessary to comprehensively apply electromagnetic and temperature field modeling systems of induction motors. Given certain shortcomings of thermal models of induction motors, it is necessary to combine modeling with experimental studies using both classical temperature sensors and the method of thermography. Originality. The combination of modern methods of modeling the thermal state of induction motors and experimental studies makes it possible to determine reserves for increasing the efficiency of existing motors. Using these results, it is possible to improve induction motors to the IE5 efficiency level. Practical value. Manufacturers and researchers see difficulties with the transition of induction motors of industrial purpose to the IE5 efficiency level, so they focused their attention on synchronous electric motors. The results of our research prove that, despite certain barriers, this transition can be made, albeit with certain difficulties.

Lifetime thermal analysis of the CANDU spent fuel storage canister at the Wolsung site

CANDU spent fuels in the Wolsung site have been stored in dry storage systems, such as concrete canisters and modular air-cooled storage system. The primary role of the canister is to ensure the integrity of the fuel during the storage period, which is significantly influenced by temperature. Thus, thermal analysis for the canister's components, especially for fuel cladding, is essential to demonstrate its safety. The thermal analysis has been conducted mainly for predicting the peak cladding temperature (PCT) since high temperature of the fuel can promote oxidation and cracking. As the expiration of storage license approaches, fuel transfer to final disposal should be prepared. This also requires a thermal analysis to predict minimum cladding temperature (MCT), which is related with brittleness. So, it is crucial to accurately predict both PCT and MCT during entire storage period. The cladding temperature is primarily influenced by decay heat and ambient conditions. The lifetime PCT may occur during summer at the beginning of storage, while the lifetime MCT occurs during winter at the end of storage. In this study, we calculated the PCT and MCT during the entire storage period using a realistic thermal analysis model and, subsequently, conducted their uncertainty analysis.

Simulation analysis and optimization of containerized energy storage battery thermal management system

The air-cooling system is of great significance in the battery thermal management system because of its simple structure and low cost. This study analyses the thermal performance and optimizes the thermal management system of a 1540 kWh containerized energy storage battery system using CFD techniques. The study first explores the effects of different air supply angles on the heat transfer characteristics. Second, the evaluation indexes of heat removal efficiency, air exchange efficiency, temperature and velocity uniformity coefficient are used to select the optimal air supply angle by the Topsis method. Then, the return air vent position is optimized based on the optimal air supply angle, and the optimal solution is obtained. Research indicates that increasing the air supply angle enhances air mixing within the container and simultaneously decreases the battery pack surface temperature. With a 90° air supply angle, the maximum temperature reduces to 33.58 °C, a 19.52 % reduction compared to 30°. The temperature difference across each battery surface also drops by 16.02 % to 3.46 °C. Adjusting the position of the return air vent further improves temperature uniformity and air flow distribution within the battery compartment. When the air supply angle is 90° and the return air vent evenly distributed at Z = 0.85 m next to the fire door, an optimal uniform temperature distribution is achieved. This reduces the maximum surface temperature by 16.47 %, from 36.67 °C to 30.63 °C and decreases the average temperature difference to 3.0 °C, 21.4 % lower. Thus, the present method effectively enhances the performance of the containerized energy storage battery thermal management system.

Enhancing the performance of the hybrid battery thermal management system with different fin structures at extreme discharge conditions

This study aims to enhance the performance of the air-cooled hybrid battery thermal management system (BTMS) by using fins under extreme discharge conditions such as 7C, 9C, and 11C. In this context, five different fin structures, Type-I (no fin), Type-II (rectangular), Type-III (extended), Type-IV (blade), and Type-V (triangular), were modeled, and numerical analyses of the developed BTMSs were performed using COMSOL Multiphysics software. In the numerical analysis, three different phase change materials (PCM-1, PCM-2, and PCM-3) with three different thicknesses (tPCM) of 4, 6, and 8 mm were considered, and the airflow was supplied to the system at three different Reynolds (Re) numbers of 100, 200, and 400. In this way, the effects of the BTMS types, tPCM , PCM types, and air velocity on the battery pack temperature distribution (ΔT), PCM melting uniformity (ΔF), and maximum battery cell temperature (Tmax) in the hybrid BTMS were investigated. As a result of the analyses, the maximum ΔT was found to be 5.58 °C for the case involving Type-II and PCM-1 with tPCM of 4 mm at 11C. PCM-2 exhibited the best performance for all BTMS types with a tPCM of 4 mm at 9C. However, at 11C, only the case involving PCM-3 with a tPCM of 6 mm and Type-V could maintain the Tmax under 60 °C. Moreover, the results obtained from the numerical analysis revealed that the use of fins significantly increased the PCM melting uniformity.

Optimization study of a Z-type airflow cooling system of a lithium-ion battery pack

The present study aims to optimize the structural design of a Z-type flow lithium-ion battery pack with a forced air-cooling system known as BTMS (battery thermal management system). The main goal is to minimize Tmax (maximum temperature) and ΔTmax (maximum temperature difference) while ensuring an even airflow distribution within the battery module. The present study thoroughly investigates critical factors, such as the inlet air velocity, tapered inlet manifold, and the number of secondary outlets, to evaluate their impact on thermal performance and airflow uniformity within the battery module. Increasing the inlet air velocity from 3 to 4.5 m/s significantly improves the thermal cooling performance of the BTMS, resulting in a decrease of 4.57 °C (10.05%) in Tmax and 0.29 °C (9.79%) in ΔTmax compared to the original 3 m/s velocity. Further, the study assesses the significance of a tapered inlet manifold as a critical factor, revealing its substantial impact on cooling performance and temperature reductions in battery cells 3–9. It also facilitates a more uniform airflow distribution, decreasing the velocity difference between channel 9 and channel 1 from 3.32 to 2.50 m/s. Incorporating seven secondary outlets significantly improves the heat dissipation ability of the BTMS, resulting in a decrease of 0.894 °C (2.18%) in Tmax and 2.23 °C (72.84%) in ΔTmax compared to the configuration with 0 secondary outlets. By optimizing these parameters, the aim is to enhance BTMS's capabilities, improving LIB (lithium-ion battery) packs' performance and reliability. The optimized structural design parameters proposed in this study yield practical applications that extend beyond theoretical insights, impacting diverse fields reliant on lithium-ion battery technology. Through enhanced thermal management systems, applications in electric vehicles and portable electronics are poised to experience improved performance and longevity. Furthermore, these advancements inform the development of next-generation battery packs, promising reduced overheating risks and extended battery life. Such innovations are critical in energy storage systems for renewable energy applications and electric vehicle technology, facilitating faster charging times and increased driving range. Moreover, the implications extend to aerospace applications, ensuring the reliability of batteries in extreme environmental conditions.

Experimental and numerical analysis of a liquid-air hybrid system for advanced battery thermal management

This study introduces an innovative hybrid Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) that combines air and liquid cooling mechanisms for optimal thermal control in small-scale EV applications. Recognizing the limitations of the existing single-method cooling systems, we developed a novel Hybrid Battery Thermal Management System that combines air and liquid cooling to provide superior temperature management. Additionally, we performed a detailed experimental evaluation to verify the accuracy of our heat generation model for lithium-ion batteries. This included the construction and testing of the proposed hybrid cooling system in a controlled environment using a climate chamber that simulated various ambient temperatures. We assessed the system performance under different operational stresses, specifically at 1C and 2C discharge rates. The tests encompassed a range of temperatures, starting at a standard room temperature (20 °C) and increasing through three levels of ambient temperature: 30, 35, and 40 °C. Initial tests under natural convection conditions showed a non-uniform temperature distribution and temperatures near the upper safety limits, with a maximum of 51 °C. While the addition of an air-cooling system provided some improvement, it still resulted in localized hotspots. However, the hybrid battery thermal management system effectively addressed these challenges, achieving marked improvements in cooling efficiency and temperature uniformity, yielding a 21.04 % improvement in cooling by reducing the maximum temperature at 2C from 51.2 °C (no cooling) to 40.9 °C while also improving the uniformity of the temperature distribution among the packs. Further tests at elevated ambient temperatures confirmed the robustness and adaptability of this system. These findings highlight the scalability of the system and suggest its potential applicability to larger battery systems, opening avenues for future research and practical implementation.