Abstract Stakeholders from six European pilot sites engaged in participatory mapping and land suitability assessments to co-design climate-smart strategies for sustainable land management. The mixed methodology applied combined GIS based landscape vulnerability analysis, stakeholder knowledge, and assessments of ecosystem services. Key phases included preliminary assessment of environmental pressures, participatory SWOT analysis, and collaborative mapping exercises to identify suitable mixed farming (MF) and agroforestry (AF) practices. This approach empowered local communities, enhanced knowledge exchange, and integrated socio-ecological dimensions into land-use planning. Participatory mapping proved effective in capturing spatial perceptions, guiding context-specific transitions, and building consensus on landscape-scale interventions. Based on environmental pressure indicators, the scaling-up analysis showed that, depending on local conditions, the proportion of areas suitable for MF and AF ranged from 2 to 61% of the total area analysed across the six pilot sites. All the stakeholders agreed on the introduction of MF and AF and expressed differing views on their potential to reduce the environmental pressures of agricultural practices and enhance ecosystem services. Practitioners, such as farmers and advisors, emphasised the need for greater knowledge and stronger policy support to implement the transition toward more agroecological farming systems. While results highlight the large potential for MF and AF (up to 61% of the land use, in certain cases), it also showed the importance of participatory tools in bridging scientific research and practice, reinforcing the role of stakeholder engagement in designing resilient and multifunctional agricultural systems. While this might help to bridge the gap between planning and the implementation of agroecological practices across diverse European contexts, further research on the implementations and the socio-economic assessment of MF and AF at landscape scale is needed. Graphical abstract

Specialized poplar plantations are relevant for wood-based panel production. In recent years, the Italian poplar sector has progressively moved towards more sustainable cultivation systems. Breeding programs developed new clones with fast growth and increased disease resistance. Agroforestry (AF) has emerged as a promising alternative to the conventional plantation (C), and its ecosystem services have been widely documented. This exploratory study compares the main physico-mechanical properties of solid wood from five new poplar clones cultivated in conventional and agroforestry plantation models. The peeling yields and the performances of plywood produced with their veneers are also investigated. Wood was obtained by harvesting seven-year-old trees in two experimental plantations located in the Veneto Region. All the clones were found to have a higher basic density than that of the ‘I-214’, the reference in the sector, and were suitable for veneers production. It was possible to obtain top-quality sheets from trees of both systems, with some differences between clones. However, the overall quality of the veneers depended on the type of clone and on the cultivation system, where conventional plantations provided better results. Higher mechanical performances were found in plywood produced from clones with higher density. The results provide knowledge to optimize agroforestry cultivation of poplar, also as a complementary source of timber supply for the concerned industrial sector.

Comparative study of woody species diversity, composition, structure and aboveground biomass carbon stock of Jello Muktar Dry Afromontane Forest with adjacent agroforestry, Southeastern Ethiopia

The concept of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) is critical to improving climate-prone areas in terms of resilience and food security. Yet, it depends on complicated socio-economic factors to be adopted, especially in post-conflict countries experiencing specific developmental problems. This paper examines the motivation behind the uptake of CSA and its perceived effectiveness by farmers in the integrated districts (former FATA) of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan an area that is recovering following a period of conflict and most vulnerable to climatic hazards. A multistage sampling method was used to collect data on 300 farmer’s in the South Waziristan, Bajaur and the Khyber districts. An Ordered Logistic Regression (OLR) model was used to determine the determinants of the level of adoption. According to the results, the education level, the number of persons living in a household, middle age, income earned through agriculture, and the status of tenants had a substantial positive impact on the level of adoption. The research also identified high level of awareness (72.3) of CSA practices; most popular practices were drought resistant varieties (83.7%), agro forestry (86.3%), and drip irrigation (86.3%). The most used practices were mulching (69.3%), drip irrigation (66.3%), and soil conservation (62.7%). More importantly, the perceived efficacy was found to be high and substantial percentages linked CSA to better yields, income, food security and soil fertility. These findings highlight the importance of specific policies that would improve education, financial incentives, and the use of favorable testimonials of adopters to support the further adoption of CSA practices in post-conflict agrarian settings.

This paper investigated the effects of agroforestry (AF) on the sensory profiles of cocoa beans and the organoleptic quality of end-chocolates. A three-day opening delay for the Ivorian hybrid cultivar commonly known as “Mercedes” (Amelonado × West African Trinitario) from AF and full-sun (FS) plantations as control located at five cocoa-producing areas were fermented in wooden boxes for 6 days and stirred at days 2 and 4. Fermented cocoa was sun-dried until reaching 7–8% moisture and processed into chocolate. Volatile compounds of cocoa powder and chocolate were analyzed using the SPME-GC-MS method, while the organoleptic perception of chocolates was assessed by 12 professional judges according to 10 sensory descriptors. The findings revealed that the concentrations of esters ranged from 9.41 ± 0.61 to 19.35 ± 1.28 µg.g−1, aldehydes from 11.56 ± 0.7 to 25.33 ± 1.5 µg.g−1, and ketones from 5.76 ± 0.62 to 55.84 ± 4.39 µg.g−1 in cocoa beans regardless of the cropping system. However, the concentrations of some volatile compounds classes including alcohols, acids, and pyrazines were similar in AF and FS chocolate samples. AF system clearly influenced the volatile compound profiles of cocoa beans in only the Adzopé, Guibéroua, and Méagui regions without impacting those of the chocolates regardless of the geographical origin after fermentation and roasting. Furthermore, AF chocolate was not less appealing than the FS chocolate samples. So, AF system did not significantly influence the sensory perception of chocolate. AF can therefore be encouraged as a cropping system for cocoa cultivation to reduce deforestation and promote reforestation, ensuring the sustainability of cocoa.

Agro forestry offers a potential solution to the problem of declining rural agricultural production. The study was conducted in Guji zone southern Ethiopia to characterize the existing agro forestry practice at study area. Accordingly, districts were stratified based on agro ecology of study area. Based on this two districts from highland and two districts from midland was selected and two PA from each districts were selected based on purposive sampling. 15 farmers from each PA, totally 120 farmers selected from both agro ecology. To collect data, semi structured questionnaire was applied through survey interview, key informant and direct field observation. As a result, home garden agroforestry practices dominates study area (17.5%) and followed by coffee based agroforestry practice (13.3), the least distributed agroforestry practice at study area was alley cropping which shows 3.3%. The major Importance of agroforestry practices were for income, regulated climates, soil improvement, used for shade, food and livestock feed, properly using the land, construction, fuel wood and timber. On the other hand, impacts of wild animals, Insect pest and disease, Competition trees with crop (i.e. shading effect), shortage of land for tree planting, lack of capital, lack of knowledge, taking long time for profit, lack of seed accessibility and Shortage of labor the major constraints recorded in the study areas.

Abstract Background Most research on silicon (Si) has focused on high or intermediate Si-accumulating species, leaving a knowledge gap on the role of Si in low Si-accumulating plants, fruit trees and other woody species. However, Si can provide ecological and agricultural benefits across a broad range of families. Agroecological (AE) and agroforestry (AF) systems, particularly in Mediterranean climates, are of great interest for addressing the challenges posed by climate change and land degradation and offer opportunities to integrate knowledge on Si to enhance agroecosystem health. Scope This review provides insights into i) Si accumulation in fruit trees, woody forestry species, timber species, and shrubs and its benefits in fruit trees, ii) Si cycling in the plant-soil system, iii) and discusses the potential for Si-mediated improvements in AE and AF systems. Conclusion The review underscores benefits of Si application on fruit tree crops, high Si-accumulation and phytolith formation in woody species, while discussing how knowledge on Si cycling in forest ecosystems and rhizosphere processes can be applied in AE and AF systems. Silicon accumulation by deep-rooted woody species may lead to increased availability of Si and other elements by mineral weathering, carbon (C) sequestration, and Si-recycling by litter or root turnover, which could be exploited, together with soil management, to improve Si nutrition in intercropped species. The adoption of agronomic strategies, including Si-efficient rootstocks, appears relevant for improving agroecosystem resilience, especially in climate vulnerable ecosystems like the Mediterranean region.

Climate change refers to any change in climate over time, either due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. Against this backdrop, understanding constraints and perceived suggestion by the farmers towards climate change becomes essential for designing context-specific strategies that enhance resilience and ensure sustainable agricultural growth. The present study carried out in Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh. All districts of Bundelkhand region were selected for study. Further, one block from each district and selected block, two villages were randomly selected. Total 375 households were selected for the collection of data. The study showed that most of the farmers challenge poor digital literacy, lack of extension support, shortage of labour availability in peak season and small and fragmented land holding. To address these issue farmers suggested climate change adaptation viz: changing cropping pattern, ground water recharge, alternative sources for livelihood with farming, agro forestry practices and formation of farmer groups/SHGs/FPOs. The study suggested the needs for targeted awareness and capacity-building programs for farmers. Strengthening climate literacy, ensuring the availability of climate-resilient technologies, and building strong farmer-to-farmer learning networks will be crucial to enhancing the community’s resilience to climate change.

An experiment was conducted in Rice growing area of Badokhar Khurd block of Banda district in Bundelkhand region to evaluate the soil fertility index. A total of 300 georeferenced soil samples of 0-15 cm depth were collected, processed and the soil properties viz. pH, EC, OC, available N, P & K were analysed using standard protocols. The maximum rice growing area soil belonged to slightly alkaline (56.3%) followed by neutral (40%) and minute area was found to be slightly acidic (3.7%) in reaction. Almost all the rice-growing area of Badokhar Khurd block exhibited non-saline conditions, whereas the maximum area exhibited low level of soil organic carbon (SOC) and available nitrogen (N), medium level of available phosphorus (P) and high level of exchangeable potassium (K). Calculation of Nutrient Index Value (NIV) categorised fertility status as low for organic carbon (1.14) & available nitrogen (1.16), medium for available phosphorus (2.08) and high for available potassium (2.44). Approaches viz. INM, Agro Forestry, SSNM etc. aiming to increase soil organic carbon and finally the soil fertility are of main concern in delineated rice growing area for elevating the low (OC, N) and medium fertility(P) status of the area.

Abstract Agroforestry (AF) is an integrated farming system that offers both tangible and intangible benefits. In many developing countries like South Sudan, where resources for agricultural development are limited, farmers still tend to increase their motivation to incorporate woody perennials into agroforestry practices. However, several studies have shown that socioeconomic and institutional factors play crucial roles in farmers' decision-making processes regarding agroforestry adoption. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the key factors influencing farmers' adoption decisions in Rajaf Payam, Juba County, South Sudan, by applying probit and multivariate probit regression analyses. Since different agroforestry practices may have varying impacts on farmers’ adoption decisions, a multivariate probit approach ensures that these practices are analyzed simultaneously, compared to using a simple probit model applied to a binary dummy variable of each agroforestry practice separately. The data were collected from 348 randomly selected households using structured questionnaires administered to household heads. Key informant interviews (KIIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) were also conducted. The main findings revealed that gender, access to credit, access to quality and improved seeds, household size, distance to market, mode of farmland acquisition, extension contact, livestock ownership, and parcel size significantly affected agroforestry adoption. The study also found that common agroforestry practices included scattered trees on croplands (44.60%), homegardens (22.44%), and boundary planting (16.34%). These practices mainly involved fruit tree species such as Mangifera indica (26.9%), Citrus sinensis (15.8%), Carica papaya (10.1%), and Azadirachta indica (9.2%), which were primarily used for food provision (24.4%), shade (7.2%), and protective/windbreak purposes (6.6%). Moreover, the results indicated that the major constraints hindering adoption were a lack of low-cost, quality inputs (ranked 1st), high rates of insecurity (ranked 2nd), a lack of capital (ranked 3rd), and insufficient labour (ranked 4th). Overall, to scale up and sustainably increase adoption rates, targeted efforts to promote agroforestry interventions should be prioritized, including mobilizing and allocating more resources to these practices.

Although agroforestry effectively addresses uncertainty, risk, and shocks, its adoption is slow among rural smallholder cashew farmers in the Gambia. This study investigates the factors influencing cashew agroforestry (AF) adoption through a household survey of 250 farmers from seven villages in the Kombo East District, West Coast Region. The adoption determinants were analyzed using a logit regression model and grouped into five categories: a) household preferences, b) resource endowment, c) risk and uncertainty, d) biophysical factors, and e) institutional factors. The study identified 28 factors, including demographics, experience, wealth, environmental threats, awareness, support, and climate change, as significantly influencing AF adoption. Despite recognizing the potential benefits of AF, farmers face constraints such as insufficient funds, poor-quality seedlings, limited extension services, lack of farmland, and low climate awareness. This study's findings offer important insights for addressing the slow adoption of cashew AF in the Kombo East district, with potential relevance for similar regions in the Gambia and beyond. It offers insights for developing policies and programs to promote and accelerate AF adoption, enhance resilience in local farming systems, improve adaptive capacity, and provide diverse livelihood and socioeconomic benefits.

Abstract A 2-years assessment of nitrogen (N) stocks, tree N safety nets (from a 15N labeling experiment), and biological N fixation was conducted in a Mediterranean agroforestry system in southern France. The study aimed to quantify N retention in agroforestry. The study area is characterized by a skeletic rhodic luvisol soil, a mean annual temperature of 15.5 °C, and an average annual precipitation of 556 mm. N and 15N were quantified across all system components, which are N-fixing black locust trees, crops, weed plants, understory vegetation strips (UVS), rhizospheric soil, and soil microbial biomass. A split-plot experimental design was used, with agroforestry (AF) and monoculture (MC) plots. 15N labeling was applied to track N fluxes and determine tree nutrient absorption over time. We hypothesized that tree root growth and nutrient leaching would enhance the safety-net effect, improving N retention. Results showed that crops in AF had lower N stocks (13–30% less than MC), but tree and UVS contributions compensated for the deficit, leading to a 62% increase in total plot-level N stock in 2022. The Relative Nitrogen Content was 0.97 in 2021 and 1.63 in 2022. While no 15N was detected in trees in the first year (70 days after labeling), 2% of applied 15N was recovered in trees 14 months post-labeling. % of N derived from atmospheric N2 (%Ndfa) ranged from 52 to 68%, with trees fixing 14–18 kg N ha−1. We confirmed that agroforestry enhances N retention, but further research is needed to quantify leaching and gaseous losses of nitrogen.

The present study was conducted to evaluate the impact of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) on root nodulation and economic performance of mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) under a citrus-based agri-horti system. The experiment was carried out during the Kharif season of 2023–24 at the College of Forestry, SHUATS, Prayagraj, employing thirteen nutrient management treatments combining various proportions of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) with organic amendments such as farmyard manure (FYM), vermicompost, press mud, and poultry manure. The treatments were assessed under two cropping conditions: 10 years old citrus based agroforestry (AF) and open field. Results indicated that INM practices significantly influenced yield with Treatment T9 consistently outperforming others by recording the highest economic returns, including a maximum benefit-cost (B:C) ratio emphasizing the effectiveness of integrated nutrient strategies over single-source applications. Conversely, treatments with moderate yields but lower net returns highlighted the critical role of input efficiency in determining profitability. The findings underscore that INM not only enhances biological nitrogen fixation and crop productivity but also improves economic sustainability, making it a viable nutrient management approach for legume-based intercropping systems, particularly in citrus-based agri-horti models.

Agroforestry (AF) systems improve ecological interactions and reduce environmental stresses in semiarid regions, thereby improving food security and livelihood. While many AF trees benefit crop growth, some may have inhibitory effects. Hence, assessing tree-crop interactions is essential to optimizing AF practices in semiarid regions. This study examines the allelopathic effects of Dodonaea angustifolia and Populus deltoides leaf powder on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) germination, growth, and yield. A pot experiment was conducted in Ganta Afeshum district, northern Ethiopia, using four concentrations of leaf powder (50, 100, 150, and 200 g per pot) mixed with soil, alongside a control (without leaf powder). Wheat germination and yield decreased by 10% and 15%, and 16 and 13%, respectively, as the concentrations of D. angustifolia and P. deltoides leaf powder increased to 200 g. Similarly, the addition of 200 g of D. angustifolia and P. deltoides leaf powder reduced barley germination by 13% and 14%, and its yield by 18% and 15%, respectively. These findings suggest that integrating D. angustifolia and P. deltoides into AF systems may reduce wheat and barley productivity in semiarid regions. Further long-term field studies are needed to confirm and expand upon these findings.

Agroforestry (AF) systems, such as short rotation alley-cropping systems are considered to improve carbon (C) sequestration compared to conventional land use without trees, while also providing environmental co-benefits, such as improved biodiversity and reduced soil erosion. Supporting ecosystem-scale measurements of C uptake are, however, largely lacking. In this study, we aim to quantify the continuous C uptake of four temperate AF and four adjacent monocropping (MC) sites in northern Germany for over two years using lower-cost eddy covariance (LC-EC) measurements. Based on the LC-EC measurements we showed that the net ecosystem production (NEP) of the AF sites was significantly higher compared to the adjacent MC. At the grassland site the AF NEP was on average 444 g C m-2y-1 higher compared to the adjacent MC across years. At the three cropland sites the differences between AF and MC varied from year to year, but on average the NEP was 37–205 g C m-2y-1 higher at the AF sites. The gross primary production and ecosystem respiration were between 151–390 and 114–185 g C m-2y-1 higher at the AF cropland sites, and 291 and 735 g C m-2y-1 lower at the AF grassland site compared to the adjacent MC, respectively. With our comparison study, it was shown that the harvest of the tree strips did not seem to systematically affect the ecosystem-scale C uptake of the AF. Finally, on the long-term it is expected that the AF sequester more C compared to the MC sites, due to the more complex landscape and additional litter fall at the AF.

Abstract Not all good intentions lead to effective and fair policy designs, as their implementation creates new problems. The European Union Deforestation Regulation (EUDR) may be an example. In targeting ‘deforestation‐free’ trade, it forces a complex social–ecological reality into an oversimplified forest–non‐forest representation. The forest definition used refers to tree cover but excludes farmer‐managed agroforestry (AF). Not all tree cover indicates forest, as forest‐like forms of agriculture (AF) exist, for example producing much of the worlds' cacao, coffee and rubber. The EUDR design trusts maps and relies on detailed spatial data to verify the deforestation‐free claims needed for access to EU markets. Tree cover is observable in remote sensing; the intended exclusion of AF is not. No map is perfect but for global forest maps prepared for EUDR use there is 18% chance a forest pixel is considered non‐forest in other data, all supposedly based on the same forest definition and cut‐off date. Map errors imply two types of risk: non‐compliant imports to the EU (that ‘fraud prevention’ tries to avoid) or unjustified exclusion (collateral damage). Globally, the EUDR maps claim 12% more forest in 2020 than national data compiled by FAO suggests; in specific countries, the gap is wider. The probability that an AF garden producing coffee cocoa or rubber is (erroneously) mapped as forest is two‐thirds for a study in Indonesia. Elsewhere similar problems have been noted. Data sources beyond direct earth observation will be needed to legally establish pre‐2021 agroforestry as a source of EUDR‐compliant commodity trade. We present a typology for such evidence. Evidence can be based on direct observations on the ground or remotely, based on what people say and on accounts of what they did. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

The Dayak community in East Kalimantan is renowned for practicing traditional Agroforestry (AF) across generations. Meanwhile, despite the long-term introduction of cacao (Theobroma cacao) in 1996 as a potential commodity in the AF practice, its productivity still needs to be improved. This study aimed to analyze the challenges as well as develop strategies for adapting and transforming traditional AF practices into Smart Agroforestry (SAF) systems for cacao. The implementation of cacao SAF is anticipated to enhance cacao productivity, improve the welfare of local communities, and preserve the forest’s function as a crucial life support system for the Dayak Community in Mahakam Ulu (Mahulu) District. Data were collected through the Triangulation Method, using interviews of selected respondents with structured questionnaires, in-depth interviews with key informants, and focus group discussions to verify and validate the data. Additionally, participatory mapping was carried out on AF cacao pattern to identify the area and its cultivation technique. We also obtained secondary data from local government sources in East Kalimantan. Data were processed using qualitative descriptive analysis, gender, and SWOT analysis. The results showed that the development of cacao-based agroforestry in Mahulu District was carried out by applying the green economy concept and considering the potential for cacao marketing, socio-economic culture, gender, and traditional knowledge. However, further development efforts are needed to improve traditional cultivation towards SAF practices. This requires multi-stakeholder collaboration from the regional level, comprising farmers and village government to the central government. Several important factors should be considered for better management of cacao cultivation. These factors include intensifying input production to increase land productivity, assuring land ownership status, improving the quality of products, increasing access to capital, as well as strengthening local institutions for a more effective and efficient marketing process.

Agroforestry (AF) effectively enhances ecological restoration and soil–water conservation (SWC), yet the relationship among soil and water conservation agroforestry (SWCAF) in karst soil, water loss (SWL) and rural eco-revitalization (RER) remains unclear, which may hinder the ecological restoration process around the world. This study aims to reveal whether SWCAF in karst areas improves RER through SWC benefits, ecosystem service (ES) enhancement and rural ecological environment quality (REEQ) improvement. We take Guizhou Province, the core area of the South China Karst (SCK), as the study area and 2010–2020 as the study period. By using the equivalent factor method, the remote sensing ecological index (RSEI) model, bivariate spatial autocorrelation and the panel vector autoregressive (PVAR) model, the study reveals SWCAF’s ecological benefits and its interaction mechanism with RER. Key findings reveal the following: (1) SWCAF reduced the area of SWL by 14.93% by converting cropland into forests. (2) The AF ecosystem service value (AFESV) increased by CNY 9.181 billion, and the forest-related AFESV increases represented 184% of the total AFESV, while REEQ showed an overall positive trend in the western SWC area. (3) The AFESV has an obvious synergistic effect with REEQ (r = 0.60) and obvious positive synergy with SWL (r = 0.69), and its spatial correlation increases over time. (4) The PVAR model verified that there is a bidirectional Granger causal relationship between the AFESV and RER, showing dynamic positive and negative alternating influences. This research study reveals that SWCAF drives RER through the dual path of SWL control and value-added ecological services, among which the forest ecosystem plays a core role. In the future, it is necessary to optimize the diversity of AF structures to avoid ecological service trade-offs. This research study provides a scientific basis for decision making and the ecological management of SWC in karst soils globally.

Soil quality dynamics in response to land-use management types and slope positions in northeastern highlands of Ethiopia

Understanding how agroforestry systems biodiversity drives ecosystem services in degraded habitats.