Agroforestry Farming Research Articles

Total income and ecosystem service sustainability index: Accounting applications to holm oak dehesa case study in Andalusia-Spain

This research develops the novel concept of an economic ecosystem service sustainability index from the perspective of total income theory, and presents its empirical application at the spatial unit scale of the agroforestry farm. This paper compares the results accrued from applying the refined standard System of National Accounts (rSNA) and the authors’ Agroforestry Accounting System (AAS). The AAS extends the rSNA to capture economic activities without manufactured production costs and substitutes the production cost valuations for exchange values revealed/stated by consumer willingness to pay for consumption of final products without market prices, the aim being to provide more comprehensive figures for total and environmental incomes of the agroforestry farms. Both accounting frameworks are applied to a case study of sixteen large, non-industrial, privately-owned holm oak dehesas (agroforestry farms) in Andalusia-Spain. This dehesa application provides estimates for the economic ecosystem service, total income factorial allocation, total capital and economic ecosystem service sustainability index for the aggregate and individual economic activities of the dehesa, distributed between accounts for the farmer and government institutional sector economic activities. The AAS explicit measurements of the hidden rSNA ecosystem services and environmental incomes of the dehesa allow us to further our scientific understanding of the current and future contributions of environmental income from nature to the total income of society as well as to provide information to the policy makers so that action can be taken to mitigate the depletion and degradation of environmental assets. This dehesa application reveals that environmental income measured by the AAS accounts for 67 % of total income in 2010. The dehesa AAS and rSNA ecosystem services share 34 % and 26 % of total product consumptions, respectively. Coupled with the AAS economic ecosystem service sustainability index of 0.5 and the rSNA economic ecosystem service sustainability index of 0.2, these figures indicate total product over-consumption in 2010. The dehesa case study shows that the AAS ecosystem services and environmental incomes are 2.5 and 8.4 times higher than those of the rSNA, respectively. Once the theoretic robustness of non-market product consumption simulated transaction value is accepted, as in the AAS methodology, the expected official economic ecosystem accounting framework will mainly depend on its ongoing standardization by the United Nations Statistical Division and implementation by individual governments. Thus, the challenge of standardizing and implementing such a framework is more closely linked to governmental policy measures than to the current scientific weakness of non-market product consumption valuations.

Leveraging Traditional Agroforestry Practices to Support Sustainable and Agrobiodiverse Landscapes in Southern Brazil

Integrated landscape approaches have been identified as key to addressing competing social, ecological, economic, and political contexts and needs in landscapes as a means to improve and preserve agrobiodiversity. Despite the consistent calls to integrate traditional and local knowledge and a range of stakeholders in the process of developing integrated landscape approaches, there continues to be a disconnect between international agreements, national policies, and local grassroots initiatives. This case study explores an approach to address such challenges through true transdisciplinary and multi-stakeholder research and outreach to develop solutions for integrated landscapes that value and include the experience and knowledge of local communities and farmers. Working collaboratively with small-scale agroforestry farmers in Southern Brazil who continue to use traditional agroecological practices to produce erva-mate (Ilex paraguariensis), our transdisciplinary team is working to collect oral histories, document local ecological knowledge, and support farmer-led initiatives to address a range of issues, including profitability, productivity, and legal restrictions on forest use. By leveraging the knowledge across our network, we are developing and testing models to optimize and scale-out agroforestry and silvopastoral systems based on our partners’ traditional practices, while also supporting the implementation of approaches that expand forest cover, increase biodiversity, protect and improve ecosystem services, and diversify the agricultural landscape. In so doing, we are developing a strong evidence base that can begin to challenge current environmental policies and commonly held misconceptions that threaten the continuation of traditional agroforestry practices, while also offering locally adapted and realistic models that can be used to diversify the agricultural landscape in Southern Brazil.

Farmer’s Perception of and Factors Influencing Agroforestry Practices in the Indus River Basin, Pakistan

Agroforestry practices of farming communities are investigated in southern Punjab province, Pakistan. It is hypothesized that rural people of this areas are more inclined than elsewhere in the province to practice agroforestry due to greater profitability than cropping. A landholder survey revealed that the majority of farmers are inclined to plant trees on their land. Low accessibility of institutional credit is a constraint for both agroforestry farmers (AF) and non-agroforestry farmers. However, among AF respondents only 24% were found to need credit for agroforestry practice, as against nearly 76% for crop production. Mostly farmers were found to have positive perceptions regarding agroforestry practice, because they understand the multiple benefits from growing trees, compared with cropping where farmers face various constraints, including poor access to credit, natural hazards, and little support from local authorities. Further, effort to sensitize farmers that growing trees has multiple benefits compared to only cultivation of field crops can bring about change in farmer’s perceptions and attitudes in the Indus River basin, resulting in motivation for agroforestry adoption.

Agroforestry systems and practices in hilly uplands of Misamis Oriental, Philippines

A total 140 agroforestry farmers were randomly identified. The data were collected using survey questionnaires, formal interviews and reconnaissance surveys. Generally, the farmers were mature (51 yr and over), male, married, and had not finished a college degree. In spite of this, adoption of Falcata-based agroforestry practices was high as exemplified by the number of adopters, presence of various tree, agricultural crops, and animals. The study also revealed that tenurial status and farm size were the main factors hindering agroforestry adoption. Land owners with a large area are most likely to adopt different agroforestry practices. Tenants preferred to plant cash crops due to the issues on the right to choose what to plant, privacy of land and security of products and uncertainty on the length of time to cultivate the land. Most respondents practiced multistorey, intercropping, alley/hedgerow intercropping to maximize land utilization, and thereby produced a diversity of crops.

THE LEVEL OF MEMBERS SATISFACTION TOWARD THE ROLE OF FARMERS GROUP IN AGROFORESTRY FARMING DEVELOPMENT

The effectiveness of farmer groups in developing sustainable agroforestry farming requires the active participation of all members of farmer groups. One of the factors that influences the level of member participation in farmer group activities is the level of member satisfaction at the role of farmer group. This study aims to determine the level of member satisfaction and the main factors that influences increasing member satisfaction at the role of farmer group. The study was conducted in Cukangkawung Village, Sodonghilir Sub-district, Tasikmalaya Regency, West Java Province from November 2017 until April 2018. Data were analyzed using Customer Satisfaction Index and Importance Performance Analysis approaches. The results showed that the level of member satisfaction at the role of farmer groups in the development of agroforestry farming was still low. The main factors that need to be considered by farmer groups to increase member satisfaction with the role of farmer groups are the ability to increase members’ capacity, to establish cooperation with stakeholders, and to strengthen of farming capital. Therefore, it is recommended that the farmer group, central and local governments altogether should manage these main factors in developing agroforestry farming.

Determining of soil resistivity by electrical resistivity tomography in agroforestry land system

The study of soil hydrological characteristics is expensive and time-consuming due to its exercises drilling, test pit, and even trenching. The electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) technique is known as one of the viable methods for determining soil resistivity as a proxy for soil water content. The research has been done in three resistivity lines at the sloping agroforestry land system in West Java province-Indonesia. Soil resistivity value in the Pangalengan line transect ranges from 4.3-2500 Ω, Mandalahaji line transect ranges from 23-288 Ω, and Kiara Payung line transect ranges from 24-500 Ω. Soil resistivity under the agroforestry land system was higher than non-agroforestry land. Soil resistivity is firmly related to the soil water content with an inverse pattern. The use of woody tree species as a water absorber in the agroforestry farming system was the potential to prevents rapid soil saturation and maintain the stability of the steep area. In the steep area, the saturated condition decreases soil shear strength and increases the load on the upper slope so that it triggers soil mass movement.

Suitability of agroforestry system against climate conditions in Tugu Utara Village, Cisarua Sub-District, Bogor

Indonesia with style agrarian agricultural potential with a very large agricultural area of 40.6 million hectares. However, agricultural patterns are applied by people still tend to conventional monoculture (99.6%). Application of a monoculture in some areas does not fit with the rules of ecological, causing vulnerability to natural disasters of drought, floods, landslides, and loss of habitat function. This study aims to determine the suitability of land in the study site for the implementation of the agroforestry farming system. Mixed methods through surveys, interviews, and desk study. Tugu Utara village an upstream watershed area (DAS) Ciliwung dominated by natural forests of primary and secondary, agriculture, and gardening. Agricultural commodities featured in this area are classified as vegetables and seasonal plants found only one species of perennials that Camelia cinensis. Agriculture-based agroforestry should be applied in this area because it is based on the study of microclimates compatibility and also serves to enhance regional resilience against natural disasters especially floods and landslides.

Accessibility of Agroforestry Farmers to Credit Facilities on Poultry Egg Production in Oyo State, Nigeria

Poultry egg production is an economically viable investment among Agroforestry farmers in Southwestern Nigeria but paucity of funds and high cost of inputs are major problems in their business operations. This study focused on the effects of accessibility and non-accessibility of Agroforestry farmers to credit on poultry egg production. Data were randomly collected from 120 poultry farmers with a structured questionnaire which comprised of 60 credit beneficiaries (CB) and 60 non-credit beneficiaries (NCB) Agroforestry farmers. The data were analyzed with mean, percentages, frequency distribution, logit and multiple regression analyses. The results of the analyses indicated that the mean age of the CB and NCB Agroforestry farmers were ±46 and ±56 years respectively. Majority of the farmers were married CB (77.4%) and NCB (81.0%). The logit regression analysis revealed that the age of the respondents had a positive relationship with access to credit at 5% level of significance. Multiple regression model for credit accessed farmers indicated that age, family size, drug quantity are positively related to output and are significant at 10% and 1% levels. Multiple regression result for NCB farmers shows that the quantity of drug used is positively related to the egg output at 1% level. The hypotheses tested show that there was a significant relationship between socio-economic characteristics and the egg production in the study area and; between the output of farmers who are credit beneficiaries and non-credit beneficiaries. The major constraints to poultry production in Agroforestry system were limited finances, high cost of inputs and poor quality of day old chicks. Accessibility to formal credit facilities has a key role to play in Agroforestry poultry farming. Individuals, Governments and NGOs should therefore facilitate empowerment of youths in poultry egg production.

Adoption of Calliandra Calothyrsus for Improved Dairy Production in Embu County, Kenya

Small-scale dairy production plays a significant role in food production and income generation in Embu County. However, dairy animals in the county rarely meet their full potential of milk production mainly due to inadequate fodder in terms of quantity and quality. Napier grass ( Pennisetum purpureum ) is the main feed for the animals. However, Napier grass is low in protein and produces little biomass during the dry season. Leguminous fodder trees including Calliandra calothyrsus are evergreen even during the dry season and have foliage rich in protein which can supplement the main diet of animals. This study was undertaken in Embu County in 2015 to assess adoption of Calliandra calothyrsus as a fodder. The study was conducted through a field survey using a structured questionnaire. The study involved interviewing 184 farmers, of which 124 were agroforestry farmers producing fodder trees and 60 non-fodder tree producing farmers. The results of the survey showed that 86% of the sampled farmers had adopted growing of Calliandra tree fodder. These farmers noted that the tree had multiple benefits that included; increased and improved dairy milk production from cows and goats as indicated by about 92% of the farmers, and improved quality of manure (84%). Age, gender, years in education and land size was the key socio-economic factors influencing adoption of Calliandra. Calliandra calothyrsus is an important fodder tree in Embu County contributing to; increased and improved milk production, providing food supplement for other livestock enterprises, conservation of soil and improved quality of manure. Keywords: Dairy farming, Embu County, Calliandra calothrysus , Adoption, Agroforestry DOI : 10.7176/JBAH/9-10-02 Publication date :May 31 st 2019

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Agroforestry farmers are generally less empowered and relatively poor. This is because of their dependance on government programs. Informal leaders are one of the driving factors to improve farmers' empowerment. The power of informal leaders' influence is in line with the level of leadership in affecting the empowerment of farmers. Informal leadership will have more impacts on agroforestry farmers when it is supported by optimal forestry extension. This study aims to analyze the influence of forestry extension on the role of informal leadership to the community surrounding the national park. The research was conducted in Kuningan and Majalengka Districts, West Java Province, which was held from July to October 2017. The method used was cluster random sampling technique with cluster location of agroforestry forest farmer group in the buffer zone of Gunung Ciremai National Park area. Data were collected by households survey on 310 agroforestry farmers. The results showed that informal leadership roles were low. This is due to the low support of forestry extension are indicated by forestry extension competency, activities, methods, materials and intensity of forestry extension. Factors of forestry extension agent's competencies and extension intensity have a major influence on the role of informal leadership.

FACTORS AFFECTING AGROFORESTRY FARMERS’ CAPACITY SURROUNDING NATIONAL PARK

The rural communities living around the National Park are generally farmers. They are less empowered and classified as poor. This is due to the relatively low capacity of farmers. In order to be more empowered, the farmers need to improve their capacity. This study aimed to analyze the factors that directly and indirectly affect the capacity building of agroforestry farmers around the National Park. This study was conducted in Kuningan and Majalengka districts of West Java Province for four months, from July to October 2017. Sampling technique used was random sampling with cluster location was agroforestry Forest Farmer Group (FFG) in the buffer zone of Gunung Ciremai National Park. The sample size was 310 members of agroforestry Forest Farmer Group. The results showed that the capacity of agroforestry farmers around the National Park was low. This is due to the low level of formal education, farming experience, cosmopolitan level, and narrow farmland of farmers. It is also caused by low environmental support factors (economic accessibility, ecological conditions, FFG role) and low participation of farmers in agroforestry both economically and socially.

Roles of Extension Services in Adoption of Agroforestry Practices among Farmers in South West Nigeria

The study examined the roles of extension in the adoption of agroforestry practices in South west Nigeria, with a view to providing data on the practices of agroforestry in the area. It highlighted the extent of agroforestry, the ownership and management of agroforestry practices, the utilization and sustainability of the practices, as well as the challenges faced by farmers practicing agroforestry. Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 200 agroforestry farmers. A large proportion (82%) of the respondents are married and the mean age was 52years. Majority (81.5%) of them had formal education while 92% are involved in farming as their primary occupation. 39.5% of the respondents are involved in the practice of shelter belt and wind breaks, 35% are involved in improved fallow, 24% in Taungya, 22% in fuel wood production, 16% in the practice of Alley cropping, 10% in Tree on range land, while 7% and 2.5% are into home garden and apiculture respectively. About half (54.5%) of respondents had no contact with extension services, access to extension service in the study area as rated by farmers is an indication of low extension agent to farmer ratio. The result of Pearson moment correlation coefficient showed that there was no significant relationship between extension contacts and sustainable adoption of agroforestry practices (r = 0.12, p = 0.07).

Local biodiversity conservation in Sigi, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia: Analysis of the effect of elevation, land accessibility, and farmers’ income and perception on vegetation diversity in agroforestry systems

Lestari ND, Suprayogo D, Rachmansyah A. 2018. Local biodiversity conservation in Sigi, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia: Analysis of the effect of elevation, land accessibility, and farmers’ income and perception on vegetation diversity in agroforestry systems. Biodiversitas 19: 283-291. The objectives of the research were to evaluate the level of landscape vegetation diversity in agroforestry systems and to determine the effect of elevation, accessibility, and farmer's income and perception on vegetation diversity in agroforestry systems. The research was conducted in Sigi District, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. The method used was the Multidisciplinary Landscape Assessment approach. The research sites were located in 3 districts and 6 representative villages i.e. Padende and Sibedi in the lower landscape (23-75 m asl.), Balane and Doda in the middle landscape (148-504 m asl.), Dombu and Ongulero in the upper landscape (1163-1404 m asl.), with 5 replications in each village. The total area of the six villages was 3772.13 ha that consisted of 1217.13 ha of agroforestry systems (32.3%). The research covered a population of 392 households who had landed with agroforestry systems. A total of 30 agroforestry farmers and their land (minimum 0.25 ha, homogeneous land system) were selected as samples. Research activities like observation, survey, and analysis were divided into two aspects, namely biophysical and socioeconomic aspects. The results revealed that at landscape level agroforestry systems had relatively high plant species diversity (H'= 3.1) and needed to be optimized to enhance its role as buffering zone for biodiversity conservation and for supporting sustainable livelihood. Efforts to improve vegetation diversity must be adjusted to habitat conditions (elevation and soil health), where vegetation can grow and produce well. The regional development such as accessibility improvement is still needed and it will not threaten the vegetation diversity as long as there is a harmony between human activities and the environment. An increase in the level of income with a positive perception of farmers on the benefits of vegetation diversity in the future will have a main role in vegetation diversity conservation as fundamental asset in sustainable development.

Benefits of Agro Forestry Land Use in Nsukka Local Government Area, Enugu State, Nigeria

The natural environment of the Nsukka, is characterized by a combination of trees and grasses in different proportions. This readily provides conducive conditions for the combined cultivation of annual crops and perennial crops, or trees. But, some factors might have stalled the espousal and practice of agro forestry in Nsukka; this is because Nsukka until recently was generally inaccessible and lacked basic infrastructure. These have contributed negatively to result in wastage of farm products especially during harvest periods, and consequent loss of income to the farmers. The broad aim of the study was to analyze agro forestry land use practices of Nsukka farmers, assess the benefits, and draw up lessons and recommendations for sustainable agro forestry development in community-based forestry projects by describing the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers, determining the type of agro forestry practiced in the area, identifying the reasons for farmers’ participation in agro forestry practices, identifying the constraints to sustainable agro forestry in the area and the measures for tackling the constraints and determining the benefits of agro forestry to participating farmers and their communities at large. The results of the study showed that most farmers sale greater part of their produce as the only source of income and most farmers spend less because they use animal dropping as a source of fertilizer. The land tenure system of the entire study area is largely by inheritance, and land use is determined by the male head and, on whom the right of usage is vested. Similarly, the ownership, sponsorship and management of agro forestry farms are largely by the families.
 

Benefits of Agro Forestry Land Use in Nsukka Local Government Area, Enugu State, Nigeria

The natural environment of the Nsukka, is characterized by a combination of trees and grasses in different proportions. This readily provides conducive conditions for the combined cultivation of annual crops and perennial crops, or trees. But, some factors might have stalled the espousal and practice of agro forestry in Nsukka; this is because Nsukka until recently was generally inaccessible and lacked basic infrastructure. These have contributed negatively to result in wastage of farm products especially during harvest periods, and consequent loss of income to the farmers. The broad aim of the study was to analyze agro forestry land use practices of Nsukka farmers, assess the benefits, and draw up lessons and recommendations for sustainable agro forestry development in community-based forestry projects by describing the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers, determining the type of agro forestry practiced in the area, identifying the reasons for farmers’ participation in agro forestry practices, identifying the constraints to sustainable agro forestry in the area and the measures for tackling the constraints and determining the benefits of agro forestry to participating farmers and their communities at large. The results of the study showed that most farmers sale greater part of their produce as the only source of income and most farmers spend less because they use animal dropping as a source of fertilizer. The land tenure system of the entire study area is largely by inheritance, and land use is determined by the male head and, on whom the right of usage is vested. Similarly, the ownership, sponsorship and management of agro forestry farms are largely by the families.

Factors Influencing Soil and Water Conservation Adoption in Basheri, Gheshnashm and Shmangus Laelai, Eritrea

<p>In response to widespread land degradation remarkable Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) interventions were carried out in Eritrea. Nonetheless, such interventions were not adopted by farmers and the problem still persists, hence this research was carried out from June 2015 to June 2016 to identify the factors affecting the SWC practices in Eritrea. Seventy two farm household heads were selected through quota simple random sampling and data was collected through group discussions, pair-wise problem ranking, participatory transect walks and semi-structured household questionnaire surveys. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression model were used for data analysis. The results indicated that only 23.61% of the respondents practice proper SWC in their farms. Moreover, the logistic regression analysis revealed that off-farm activities, land tenure insecurity, educational level of household head and household head being female had significant negative effects on SWC efforts, whereas slope of the farm showed significant positive effect. Land tenure insecurity, weak extension service and low agricultural production were also ranked by farmers as the first three constraints in SWC practices. As the legacy of the past food for work and cash for work programs, SWC is considered as a paid-work by local communities. Hence, appropriate agricultural extension, land tenure security and introduction of agroforestry farming systems are recommended in the study area.</p>

Status of Jatropha plants farming for biodiesel production in Rwanda

This study investigated the status of Jatropha plants farming for biodiesel production in Rwanda. A total of 73 Jatropha farmers from five sectors namely, Kigarama, Kigina, Kirehe, Mahama and Nyamugali in Kirehe district, Eastern Province, were selected. The study examined eight key parameters that determine the status of Jatropha plants farming. These parameters are classification of Jatropha farmers, methods for Jatropha plants growing, government strategy on providing Jatropha quality seeds or seedlings to farmers, government involvement to initiate local farmers to cultivate Jatropha plants for biodiesel production, knowledge level of the farmers on Jatropha plants farming, Jatropha seeds yield, perception level of investing on Jatropha plants farming and opinions of the key players in the biodiesel project. Through interviews and questionnaires, information was gathered and analysed using both qualitative and quantitative methods.Result indicates that majority of the farmers (82%) in the five sectors reported that they were farming Jatropha plants as individual farmers while about 18% indicated that they were cultivating Jatropha plants as cooperatives. Majority of the farmers (70%) used agro-forestry farming technique due to shortage of farm lands. It was also revealed that most of the farmers (55%) have little knowledge on growing Jatropha plants. With regards to farmers using quality Jatropha seeds or seedlings, most farmers (93%) indicated that the government has not provided Jatropha seeds or seedlings. On the other hand, majority of the farmers (80%) stated that there have been very low involvements of the government to initiate farmers to cultivate Jatropha plants for biodiesel production project.In terms of Jatropha seeds yield, majority of the farmers (63%) in the five sectors rated Jatropha seed production level as low (between 1.1 and 2.9 t/ha/year) while about 33% stated that it was very low (between 0 and 1 t/ha/year). This was attributed to lack of reliable markets, low level of sensitisation, lack of preliminary studies on suitable areas for Jatropha plantation, lack of policy and institutional framework on biofuels, shortage of farm lands for intensification of Jatropha framing and low soil adaptation of the Jatropha plants. Due to low production level and lack of reliable markets, 71% of the total respondents considered Jatropha plants farming as a very low investment.Since there is no biodiesel production at the moment which would have created a reliable market for Jatropha seeds, Jatropha farming for biodiesel production in Rwanda is not viable. It is recommended that the government should carry out a feasibility study to generate knowledge on growth performance of various Jatropha species under the prevailing environmental conditions. In addition, due to shortage of land farms, the government should undertake economic assessment of growing Jatropha trees as hedges.

Management and socioeconomic determinants of woody species diversity in parkland agroforestry in Tembaro District, Southern Ethiopia

Parkland agroforestry farming system is widely practiced by smallholder farmers in semi-arid West and East Africa. Parkland agroforestry plays an important role in product diversification and biodiversity conservation. The study carried out to examine the management and socioeconomic determinants of woody species diversity in parkland agroforestry in Tembaro district, Southern Ethiopia with objectives (i) assess woody species diversity, (ii) identifying farmers management practices and (iii) socioeconomic determinants of woody species diversity in parkland agroforestry. Two administrative kebeles were selected purposively. A total of 120 households were randomly selected for socioeconomic data and woody species inventory. Based on the analysis, 90% of households are males, and 54.2% are in medium wealth class. A total of 27 woody species were recorded in the study area. The Shannon, Simpson and evenness were1.83±0.18, 0.78±0.046 and 0.77±0.07, respectively. Woody species density per quadrate at Waro site (15.58±5.47) was significantly higher than Bechira site (13.47±5.77) (p<0.05). The mean basal area of woody species at Waro was slightly higher (2.52±1.38ha-1) than at Bechira (2.2±1.36ha-1), the difference not statistically significant (p>0.05). At the study sites, farmers retained (planted) woody species in their parkland agroforestry for the purpose of fuel wood, improving soil fertility, fodder, timber, shade, construction, etc. The important socioeconomic determinants influencing woody species richness in the study area were family size, farm size, wealth, education level, access to extension services, and access to the road. The diversity of woody species in parkland agroforestry plays a great role in provisioning and regulation functions.

Climate change adaptation through agroforestry: The case of Kassena Nankana West District, Ghana

The paper aims at assessing agroforestry as an adaptation strategy to a changing local climate. Agroforestry is necessitated by the need to improve tree population along the Sisili River and other areas in the Kassena Nankana West District. Primary data were generated through survey methods in which questionnaires were administered to 75 agroforestry farmers. It was triangulated with eight focus group discussions and five key informant interviews. Additionally, secondary data on rainfall and temperature (1984–2015) were analysed. The study revealed that farmers have noticed changes in the local climate as declining rainfall and increasing sunshine associated with rising temperature. Secondly, agroforestry was found to be useful in reducing water and wind erosion of soil, it improves soil nutrients, moisture retention and household food availability. Agroforestry is challenged with water shortages, unsupervised livestock grazing and bushfires. The study concludes that agroforestry is a dynamic agricultural adaptation option to a changing local climate. Therefore, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and NGOs should support farmers with dams and fencing materials and encourage more farmers to adopt agroforestry.

Remote Sensing-Based and Participatory Analysis of Forests, Agricultural Land Dynamics, and Potential Land Conservation Measures in Kloto District (Togo, West Africa)

This study investigates proximate drivers of cropland and forest degradation in the Kloto district (Togo, West Africa) as a way of exploring integrated sustainable landscape approaches with respect to socioeconomic and environmental needs and requirements. Net change analysis of major cash and food crops based on Landsat data from three time steps (1985–2002, 2002–2017, and 1985–2017) and quantitative analysis from participatory survey data with farmers and landowners are used. The study underlines poor agricultural systems and cassava farming as major factors contributing to the alarming forest losses between 1985 and 2017. A significant net loss in forest cover of 23.6% and areas under maize and cocoa agroforestry farming of 12.99% and 10.1% between 1985 and 2017, respectively, was noted. These significant losses are due to intensive cassava cropping (38.78%) and settlement expansion (7.87%). Meanwhile, the loss of forest cover between 2002 and 2017 was marginal (8.36%) compared to the period 1985–2002, which had a considerable loss of 15.24%. Based on participatory surveys, the majority of agricultural lands are threatened by erosion or physical deterioration (67.5%), land degradation or salt deposits and loss of micro/macro fauna and flora (56.7%), declines in soil fertility (32.5%) and soil water holding capacity (11.7%), and changes in soil texture (3.3%). Most farmers adhere to the proposed climate smart practices, with an emphasis on cost-effective drip irrigation systems (45.83%), soil mulching (35%), and the adoption of drought-resilient varieties (29.17%) to anticipate adverse spells. We conclude that low adoption of improved soil conservation, integrated water management, and harvesting systems and the use of less productive and adaptive cultivars entail extreme degradation of cropland and a decline in crop productivity. Consequently, farmers are forced to clear more forest in search of stable and healthy soil to meet their food demands and improve their livelihood. Capacity building on integrated pathways of soil and land management practices is therefore needed to ensure sustainable and viable socio-ecological systems at a local scale.