Agro Waste Research Articles

PRODUCTION OF BIOFERTILIZER USING GOAT DUNG, CHICKEN DUNG, PINEAPPLE PEELS AND CITRUS PEELS

This study aimed at evaluating the efficacy of composed Biofertilizers from Pineapple and Orange (Citrus) Peels blended with Goat dung and Chicken dung.Organic wastes comprising goatdung, chiken dung, Pineapple waste and Citrus wastes were collected from the Dutsin-Ma vegetable Wednesday market, The agro waste was mixed and put into a digester to which 500 mL of water and 200 g of rumen content were also added. The digester was then tightly closed and a rubber pipe were put on top of the digester so as to allow the gas to escape. Sorghum seeds (10) were then planted using two polythene bags. The organic biofertilizer was applied to one polythene bag at 500 g and the other without treatment (control). The plant length and number of leaves were determined. Results obtained revealed that, the composed Biofertilizer significantly(p<0.05) increased the growth parameters of the test plant considered. The production of organic biofertilizer is an excellent waste processing and recycling method which is cost effective, readily available and ecologically friendly.

Isolation and Identification of Endophytic Bacterial Isolates from the Leaves, Roots, and Stems Parts of Artemisia annua, Moringa oleifera, and Ocimum lamiifolium Plants.

Medicinal plants are known to harbor diverse species of endophytic bacteria which are known for secretion of beneficial secondary metabolites, like enzymes and antimicrobial compounds. The present study aimed to isolate, characterize, and identify the endophytic bacteria isolates from Artemisia annua, Moringa oleifera, and Ocimum lamiifolium plants. Certain endophytic bacterial isolates were screened. Phosphate and Zinc solubilization were performed for newly obtained isolates. The 16S rRNA gene sequencing was performed for RPAAI-8 isolate. Data were analyzed. Our study showed that endophytic bacterial isolates were recognized to be Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter asburiae, E. cloacae, E. kobei, E. ludwigii, Enterococcus faecium, and Pseudomonas monteilli. From among these differentiated endophytic bacterial isolates, Enterobacter species are the most frequently obtained isolates. These bacterial isolates were shown 99.77% sequence similarity to Enterobacter ludwigii EN-119T (JTLO01000001) using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. This isolate was designated as Enterobacter sp. RPAAI-8. This isolate was able to employ selected cheap and cost-effective agro wastes as a carbon source. This cheap agro waste utilization by these Enterobacter species could be the first report. In conclusion, the present isolates are found to be employed for plant growth promotion and solubilizing insoluble phosphate and zinc. Before this time, most of the recent isolates were not identified from these medicinal plants. The ethyl acetate extract of the isolates also showed inhibitory activity against selected test pathogens.

Biogenic Materials and Wastes: A Sustainable Source of Clean Energy

Abstract: Progress in agriculture and industry is taken as a general criterion for the development of any country, and this craze has resulted in unlimited exploitation of every bit of natural resources. The exploitation of natural resources includes biological and nonbiological waste. Wastes that are produced due to the exploitation of biological materials such as agro waste, rice husk, coconut shell, jatropha oil, banana peels, tea-tree extract, waste food, food products, insects, and chicken fat are known as biogenic waste. Biogenic materials can be used to minimize the environmental hazards produced through the exploitation of different nonbiogenic materials that are used by a larger number of populations in their daily life. Thus, biogenic materials can be used for the sustainable development of clean energy, as their production does not require industrialization. Currently, different types of biological materials are used in different sectors ranging from the construction sector to pharmaceuticals as well as food, biorefineries and agriculture. These materials, on the one hand, are proven to be very useful, as they have fulfilled the requirements with the goal of less environmental hazards in their production; they also have a dark phase with negative environmental impacts after their use. Modern research has led to the use of biogenic waste by transforming it into different types of nanomaterials that can be reused with minimum pollution and can be commercialized. This chapter includes different types of biomaterials and their uses along with biogenic wastes. The final section includes different types of transforming products of biogenic waste to nanomaterials along with their uses.

Fabrication of agro–waste lotus leaf–derived adsorbent for effective removal of organic pollutants from water

Full utilization of agricultural waste (agro–waste)–derived adsorbents for water purification is favorably sustainable. Herein, adsorbents obtained from the local lotus leaves are employed to remove the organic pollutants from water. The local lotus–leaf–derived adsorbent followed by 2 g of ZnCl2 activation at 1173 K (LAC–2–1173) exhibits a maximum adsorption capacity of 91.7 mg∙g−1 for norfloxacin at 298 K due to its larger specific surface area and hydrophobicity. Meanwhile, LAC–2–1173 possesses a superior adsorption performance of methylene blue and methyl orange with the maximum adsorption capacity of 176.7 mg∙g−1 and 246.5 mg∙g−1, respectively. The pollutants’ adsorption over LAC–2–1173 is exothermic and spontaneous, and the adsorption kinetic behavior and adsorption isotherms are well in line with the pseudo–second–order equation and Langmuir model, respectively. This work provides some insight into the fabrication and utilization of local agro–wastes–derived materials for environmental remediation.

An analysis of waste/biomass gasification producing hydrogen-rich syngas: A review

In the last few decades, the population growth level has increased exponentially so the waste disposal level has increased gradually. Wastes like biodegradable wastes, kitchen wastes, hotel wastes, and other agro wastes can be processed through bio methanation and composting technology but non-biodegradable materials like plastics, rubber, industrial sludge, and other wastes cannot be processed in simple ways or technologies. These wastes are critical to handle and need robust technology. Gasification and incinerators are a technology to utilize these waste materials and convert them into useful energy. However, the incinerator has a drawback of control over emissions generated by waste material combustion. Gasification is the best-suited technology which can convert the waste material into gaseous form and this gas provides heat to the prime movers to generate energy/power. Carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen are the main components of synthetic gas (syngas), which has a low calorific value. Increased hydrogen and carbon monoxide concentrations improve this gas's calorific value. Different gasification methods like gasification using agent as steam, catalytic gasification, and gasification using different combination of fuels (waste-coal/biomass) are used to enrich the hydrogen content of the syngas. This paper reviewed the theory of waste-to-energy technologies, incineration technology, gasification technology, methods for increasing hydrogen in syngas, also different methods. This review discusses waste gasification disposal methods and hydrogen enrichment.

Characterization of mechanical and wear properties of Prosopis juliflora thorn powder-filled epoxy nanocomposites

The mechanical and wear behavior of agro waste thorn ( Prosopis juliflora [PJ]) derived as a nanoparticle with different weight compositions (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 wt.%) reinforced in an epoxy matrix is investigated in this study. First, the effect of thorn nano epoxy composite is studied under ASTM standards. The results indicated that the nanocomposites with 2.5 wt.% filler have the maximum tensile strength, flexural strength and hardness of the epoxy composite, while those with 10 wt.% filler exhibit a noticeable increase in impact strength and compressive strength. Furthermore, the incorporation of thorn nanoparticles improved the wear resistance. 2.5 wt.% nano PJ thorn composites improved wear resistance by 9.03%. Additionally, the size of the nanoparticles, the fracture surfaces, the crystalline nature, the elements and the compounds in the thorn nanofillers are examined using transmission electron microscope, field emission scanning electron microscope, X-ray diffraction, energy dispersive X-ray and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.

Valorization of Malus domestica L. (Apple) peels: A case study of circular bioeconomy

Sustainable food production by agricultural and food processing industries has gained importance in last decade, which essentially requires good management of the wastes generated during processing. In this regard, sustainable handling of any agro waste using the concept of “circular bioeconomy” is important. Present work depicts a case study on circular bioeconomy of Apple peels (AP) utilization for its value addition with zero waste at the end. AP was exposed to four different Deep eutectic solvents synthesised using HBA Choline Chloride with varoius HBDs like malic acid, glycerol, ethelene glycol and urea as well as a benchmark solvent Ethanol:water (50% v/v) resulting in extracts with TPC ranging between 1040 and 4302.6 mg GAE 100 g-1. Polyphenolic profiling of the extracts using developed HPLC method, confirmed the presence of polyphenols such as Phlordizin, Rutin, Syringic acid, Paracoumaric acid, Chlorogenic acid, Catechin, Epicatechin, Ferulic acid. The chemistry behind the ability of DESs for the extraction of the polyphenols in varying amount is explained using Hole theory and computational modeling of DES. Antioxidant potential of the extracts towards FRAP (7.76- 20.7 mM L−1)/ABTS (2.31- 8 mM L−1) assay and antibacterial activity against gram negative/positive bacterias with zone of inhibition between 12.2 and 14.9 mm, confirmed extracts to be biologically active, promoting their use as nutraceutical. Moreover, total dietary fiber in the residue (27.31- 45.44%) can find application as probiotics, thus complying with zero waste generation at the end. DES could be recycled six times with 15% decrease in efficiency.

Development and Characterization of Green Composites from Agro Waste Aloe Vera and Pineapple Leaf Fiber

Natural fibers possess the advantage of low cost, abundant in quantity and biodegradability. Rising awareness about green products and supportive government regulations are likely to propel the growth in the field of green composite. In this current research, a comparative study of mechanical characteristics and water absorption behaviour of green composites incorporating Aloe Vera and pineapple leaf fibers in biodegradable matrix (polylactic acid) has been experimentally examined. Composite has been developed using compression molding technique. The effect of surface modification of fibers on mechanical properties and water absorption behaviour of developed composite was investigated. Surface treatment was done using alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide having concentration of 5%. Treatment of fiber enhanced tensile, flexural, microhardness and impact properties of developed green composite and reduces water absorption capacity. Moreover, experimental results show that Aloe Vera reinforced composites have better mechanical properties in comparison to Pineapple leaf fiber reinforced composites. Thereby having potential to be used in various engineering applications

Investigation of dyeing, antibacterial and antifungal properties of blended fabrics treated with plant‐based dyestuffs and mordants as shoe materials

AbstractIn this research article, it is reported the preparation and characterisation of four types of blended cotton‐polyester based textile materials in different dye ratios with four kinds of natural dyes of agro waste (walnut shell, onion peel) and wildflowers (tansy, Hypericum) with/without mordants as antibacterial and antifungal species for shoe materials. The dyed samples were spectrophotometrically measured and the results were obtained as colour strength (K/S) as well as CIELab values. As a result, dyed fabrics with natural dyes showed yellow, grey, orange and brown colours. With the help of a mordant, aluminium‐potassium, the dyed fabrics obtained natural, not distorted shades of these colours, and with the addition of copper sulphate, they showed changing yellow to light green, orange to dark red, grey to a darker shade of grey and brown to a darker colour. The dyed samples were tested for colour fastness to circle rubbing and satisfactory results were found. The fabrics dyed only with natural dyes and treated with natural dye and mordants were evaluated for antibacterial and antifungal properties against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans. The results indicated that fabrics treated with these natural dyes and mordants had excellent antibacterial and antifungal activity. All natural dyes and mordants used in this study were the most effective and showed the maximum inhibition zone, indicating the best antimicrobial and antifungal activity against tested microbes. The results showed that all these natural dyes can provide some antibacterial and antifungal activity on mixed fabrics.

Utilization of Agricultural Waste Through Conventional Technologies for the Treatment of Industrial Effluents: A Review

Agricultural waste products are commonly distributed and they are inexpensive and biodegradable. This review focuses on various agro wastes used in the treatment of industrial wastewater. As heavy metals are considered as a global threat affecting biological lives, ways to remove them from waste water are challenging. Various conventional methods are used in recent times for the removal of heavy metals from industrial waste water. Agricultural waste is a good resource for the adsorption of the dyes generated during industrial processing. The adsorption process serves as an alternative method to treat wastewater. The study provides the steps followed in various industries and explains the steps in which the toxic heavy metals find their way to the environment. This review focuses on the comprehensive ways of utilization agro wastes as good treatment material which are also eco-friendly. The review suggests how agro wastes form a potential, effective, affordable and sustainable sorbent biomaterial for minimizing environmental pollution. Agricultural waste products are commonly distributed and they are inexpensive and biodegradable. This review focuses on various agro wastes used in the treatment of industrial wastewater. As heavy metals are considered as a global threat affecting biological lives, ways to remove them from waste water are challenging. Various conventional methods are used in recent times for the removal of heavy metals from industrial waste water. Agricultural waste is a good resource for the adsorption of the dyes generated during industrial processing. The adsorption process serves as an alternative method to treat wastewater. The study provides the steps followed in various industries and explains the steps in which the toxic heavy metals find their way to the environment. This review focuses on the comprehensive ways of utilization agro wastes as good treatment material which are also eco-friendly. The review suggests how agro wastes form a potential, effective, affordable and sustainable sorbent biomaterial for minimizing environmental pollution.

Production, optimization and partial purification of bacterial and fungal proteases for animal skin dehairing: A sustainable development in leather-making process

Crude microbial protease was produced from Bacillus subtilis KM5B and Aspergillus flavus KMAF1 after their 16S/18S rDNA molecular identification with 99.59 % and 98.99 % respectively through solid state fermentation in a medium containing hair, feathers and agro wastes. The crude protease after optimization had an optimum production with Bacillus subtilis of 35 mm, enzyme activity of 123.2 U/mL at 35 °C, pH 8.0 for 48 h while A. flavus recorded 18 mm and an enzyme activity of 122.1 U/ml at 30C, pH 7.0 for 120 h. The percentage protease recovery for the B. subtilis and A. flavus were 71.5 % and 94.8 %, fold purification at 1.5 and 2.0, total protein was 107.90 mg and 150.60 mg, enzyme activity was 125.06 U/ml and 122.01 U/ml, and specific activity was 1.159 U/mg and 0.81 U/mg respectively. Therefore, protease from the two organisms have potential to dehair animal skins in tanneries industries to improve the quality of leather without environmental pollution.

Optimization and purification of laccase activity from Mammaliicoccus sciuri isolated from the soils of Similipal, Odisha, India: a kinetics study of crystal violet dye decolorization

Four laccase-producing bacteria were found in soil samples from the Similipal Biosphere Reserve in Odisha, according to the current study. The isolates (SLCB1 to SLCB4) were evaluated for their laccase-producing ability in LB broth supplemented with guaiacol. The ABTS assay was performed to assess the laccase activity. The bacterium Mammaliicoccus sciuri shows the highest laccase activity i.e., 0.5125 U/L at the optimized conditions of pH 5.5, temperature 32.5 °C, ABTS concentration of 0.75 μl with an incubation time of 9 d. Laccase activity of M. sciuri grown in Sawdust was significantly increased in comparison to that in other agro wastes. The partially purified laccase enzyme after ammonium sulfate precipitation and dialysis showed a molecular weight of ∼58.5 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE. A decolorization efficiency of 66.67% was recorded for the dye crystal violet after 1 h treatment with dialyzed laccase enzyme compared with phenol red, brilliant blue, and methylene blue.

Preparation and Characterization of Rice Starch Nanocomposite Films Reinforced with Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized from Onion Peel Extract

AbstractThis study aims to develop and characterize rice starch nanocomposites containing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) derived from onion peel extract (OPE) as a reducing agent. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images reveal the formation of semi‐spherical shaped nanoparticles. Also, the peaks obtain at 3 keV using energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) indicates the presence of elemental silver. Active films loaded with AgNPs are subjected to SEM and show that incorporation of AgNPs lead to the development of embedded starch matrix as compared to control sample. The decrease in moisture content and water vapor permeability is quite noticeable by increasing the AgNPs concentration and ranges between (8.58–11.32)% and (6.74–10.90) × 10−9 g−1 s−1 Pa−1, respectively. The results of tensile test suggest that tensile strength is significantly increased after incorporation of nanoparticles in films. The active films possess improved antibacterial activity against food pathogens. Hence, the present investigation suggests economical and advantageous way to formulate nanocomposite films from rice starch that are loaded with AgNPs derived from an agro waste material, i.e., onion peels that are rich in phenolic compounds but are usually discarded by food processors.

Ameliorative Capacity of Rice Husk Extract on Codeine-induced Testicular Dysfunction in Male Wistar Albino Rats

Rice husks (RHs) is an agro waste generated from rice production with limited application. Codeine belongs to the numerous drugs of abuse worldwide and its impact on reproductive injury has been reported. This study was designed to establish the ameliorative potential of brown rice husk extract (RHE) against reproductive damage induced by codeine misuse. Experimental rats were grouped into six groups with six rats per group: Group I received only rat chow and clean water for 30 days. Group II received only codeine 10 mg/kg body weight (b.w) of rats. Group III received only RHE 500 mg/kg b.w of rats. The 4th, 5th and 6th groups received codeine 10 mg/kg/b.w alongside 250 mg, 500 mg and 1000 mg RHE, respectively. Treatments (RHE and codeine) were administered once during the early hours between 9-10 am daily for 30 days, the animals were sacrificed, and blood and tissue samples were harvested. Male reproductive hormones such as testosterone, Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), and sperm quality parameters were assayed. The testis tissues were excised and examined for histopathological changes. The result revealed that high dose codeine administration significantly decreased epidermal morphology, motility, and sperm count as well as testosterone, FSH, and LH concentrations, respectively. The histopathological examination revealed distinct abnormal changes in the codeine control group when compared with the other experimental groups. RHE administration significantly improved the altered assayed parameters.

Thermal and mechanical investigation of chemically treated hybrid biomass epoxy bio-composite: An approach of pyrolysis kinetics

This work includes that application of agro wastes in polymer composites are trending at present due to the enormous potential available in the area of biopolymer composites. Due to the increasing production of various composites, there will be a major portion of plastic waste in the form of composite polymer. Rice husk, wood floor, sunnhemp, inorganic fibers, forestry residue and other biomass are widely used in bio-composite. Hybrid fiber provides the scope of enhancing the weight proportion of reinforcements in composites. Surface treatment of these lignocellulosic fibers, before reinforcement is an important & major area of interest regarding treatment effects on the developed composites. In this research article, the authors examined the efficacy of reinforcement of pretreated hybrid natural fibers with polymer as well as their energy potential considering a disposal concern after end use through incineration. So, pyrolysis behavior becomes significant. Here an alkali-treated rice husk composite property is scaled with a hybrid composite of rice husk and sunnhemp, maintaining the same weight ratio. The developed samples are analyzed by Fourier Transform Infrared, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, and mechanical characterization of both the composites. Crystallinity of hybrid composites were found enhanced. Pyrolysis kinetics reveals that the activation energy of composites depends upon reinforcement of used biomass and for sunnhemp and rice husk reinforced composite it was found lower as compared to single rice husk reinforced composite.

Agro Based Material (Rice Husk Powder and Carbon Nanotubes) as Reinforcement in the Development of a New Polymer Bio-composite

Attempts to remedy the problem of cost since most agro wastes are relatively available at low cost, these agro based materials have successfully found significant application in improving the performance of polymeric materials, In this research, a PP with rice husk and carbon nanotubes as composite material with useful application in construction and structural design were been developed. Alkali treatment is significant in enhancing the mechanical properties of the fiber through the removal amorphous portion, increases the crystallinity and strength of the natural fiber reinforced polymer composites, tensile test results shows that the ultimate tensile strength at 5% for rice husk, as shown in the results, a decline in tensile and flexural strength from 5% filled composite were attributed to agglomeration as filler concentration increased. Hence the better the dispersion of the filler in the macromolecular chains of the matrix, the better enhanced the mechanical property will be.

Application of electro-spun nano-fibers based on agriculture cellulosic biomaterial wastes for removal of dye and heavy metal from polluted water

This work aims to extraction of valuable cellulosic biomaterials namely; carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and carbon quantum dots (CQDs) from agriculture cellulosic waste (agro wastes) via economically and ecofriendly single-step method. CMC and CQDs were then mixed with nylon-6 to get suitable composite solutions that electro-spun into nano-fibers (NFs) by using nozzle-less electrospinneret. The obtained functional NFs were applied in adsorption and capturing of dye molecules and heavy metal cation from the contaminated water. The morphological structure of the obtained NFs was investigated by SEM. Chemical and thermal properties of the obtained NFs were studied by FT IR, T GA, and DSC. Depending on their composition, the capacities of the prepared NFs to capture Cr+6 as well as to adsorb cationic dye were examined. Results of this study show the higher efficiency of the prepared cellulosic biomaterial/nylon-6 NFs to adsorb and capture dye molecules and Cr+6 reached to about 86% and 93%; respectively.

A review on emerging trends in the scientific application of nano-coatings and nanoparticle synthesis

In the surface coating industry today, coating of a metal surface is a very important process needed for protection. Coating is always going to be important to prevent various metal surfaces from corroding. Researchers continually look for preferable and economical forms of surface coatings that can be applied on metals. The use of nanoparticles for various applications in different sectors, engineering inclusive has recently gained popularity. Nanoparticles find application in manufacturing industries, electronics and medicine to mention but a few. Globally, this is an elevating trend of waste to wealth transformation with many researchers considering agro wastes in particular as a viable alternative to developing coatings. This study is therefore a review of the recent advancements in the application of nano-coatings and synthesis of nanoparticles for engineering purposes.

Effect of case hardening on the wear and hardness properties of medium carbon steel for bone crushing application

The majority of wear-related problems are connected to crushing machines because hammer failure frequently causes machine failure which eventually leads to machine downtime. Therefore, improving the reliability of crushing materials is necessary for effective production. This research investigation focused on the development of crushing material with appropriate strength properties that can function in critical, impact-prone, corrosive, and abrasive conditions. The current study used palm kernel shell, coconut shell, and sawdust powder as the media for medium carbon steel in order to valorize the agro waste. Carburising media PKS-composition, CS-composition, and SD-composition were changed to 40%: 30%: 30%, PKS-composition 100%, CS-composition 100%, and SD-composition 100%. The process was carried out in 1 h (60 mims), 1 h:30 min (90 min), 2 h (120 min), 2 h:30 (150 min), and 3 h (180 min) soak period with varied carburising temperatures of 900, 950, 1000, and 1050 °C. However, several characterisation and mechanical tests were carried out using an optical microscope, a spark spectrometer, a scanning electron microscope coupled with an energy dispersive spectrometer, wear tester to explore their microstructural features. Vicker's hardness tester, sliding wear tester, and a thermal gravimetric analysis testing machine were also employed. In order to establish reasons for failure other than the cyclic loading on the materials, the results were compared with the properties of as-received un-failed, and carburised medium carbon steel. The results of carburisation show that PKS penetrates carbon at a rate that is noticeably higher than that of other materials at various temperatures and times, indicating that carbon diffuses deeply into the material. Hence, this enhances the wear resistance, and sample's hardness number but decreased its impact toughness respectively.

Evaluating the Influence of Palm Kernel Shell Ash on Ire Clay Geopolymer Concrete Cured at Ambient Temperature

There is an abundance of clay deposit in Ire Ekiti which can serve as geopolymer source material and Palm kernel shell exists as a massive agro waste in South Western Nigeria. This study evaluates the effect of palm kernel shell ash (PKSA) as an additive on the compressive strength of Ire clay geopolymer concrete. The objective of the study is to determine the selected properties of the obtained concrete at room temperature. Palm kernel shell was burned at 650oC for 2 hours in a furnace. Natural clay collected from Ire Ekiti was manually pulverized, air dried and calcined in a furnace at 750o for 2 hours. The geopolymer concrete was prepared at a mixing ratio of 1:2:3. The material constituents were calcined clay (source material), 12M of NaOH and Na2SiO3 (ratio of NaOH to Na2SiO3 was 2:5), river sand and 12.5mm granite were the fine and coarse aggregates respectively while PKSA of 0%,7.5% and 15% of the calcined Ire Clay content were used as additive in preparing the geopolymer concrete. geopolymer concrete specimens were cured at ambient temperature till testing at different maturity ages of 7, 14 and 28 days. It was generally observed that increasing the percentage of PKSA as additive strongly improved the compressive strength gain with maturity of the Ire clay geopolymer concrete. At 28 days maturity, 7.5% PKSA addition improved the compressive strength by 166% while 15% PKSA addition improved the strength by 181% increase. The highest compressive strength was 7.67N/mm2 at 15% PKSA addition on 28 day. Conclusively, Ire clay and PKSA are viable source material and additive respectively for geopolymer concrete production. The Ire clay geopolymer concrete can be practically applied like conventional concrete in structural work especially in a rural community like Ire Ekiti where cement needs to be transported over kilometers. Also, the concrete performing well at ambient temperature makes it cost effective compare to most geopolymers that require heating at high temperature. It is recommended that further study on the durability should be done.