Agro-pastoral Production Systems Research Articles

English

The aim of this paper was to review cattle husbandry practices (feeding, breeding, watering and health care) and production systems in Ethiopia, identifying constraints limiting the production and quantifying cattle feed resources, specifically. Highland crop-livestock farming system in Ethiopia encompasses nearly 40% of the country’s land area, while lowlands areas cover about 60% of the country’s land area. The sector is characterized by pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems. The major constraints that limit cattle production in Ethiopia are genetic resources, shortage of feed and water, climatic factor, diseases, and poor housing. Major feed resources for cattle in the country are natural pasture, crop residue, and crop aftermath beyond other non-conventional feed resources. It was concluded that more emphasis should be given to perform applied research to improve cattle production through strong extension services in delivery of veterinary services, improved fodder cultivation and feed conservation, and improved availability of water in different agro-ecologies of the country. Key words: Constraints, feed resources, production systems.

Assessment of reproductive performance of Begait cattle in in-situ and ex-situ sites and in different production systems in northern Ethiopia

Retrospective studies were conducted in Kafta-Humera and Wukro areas of Tigray region of Ethiopia. A retrospective study was carried out on 12 herds consisting 2144 Begait cattle from pastoral and agro-pastoral areas to assess herd composition and calf-crop. To evaluate the reproductive performance, 210 cows were selected randomly from pastoral, agro-pastoral, confinement and crop-livestock production systems. All necessary data of reproductive parameters were collected through questionnaire surveys, group discussions and follow-up observations. SPSS software was applied to analyze the data. The result of the present study showed that the average calf-crop of 53% and 42.1% and annual calf mortality rate of 20.8% and 9.4%, were observed for pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems, respectively. The mean age at first service (AFS), age at first calving (AFC) and calving interval (CI) in months were 34.9, 43.9 and 12.9 in pastoral, 35.9, 45.0 and 14.0 in agro-pastoral, 34.4, 44.9 and 15.0 in confinement and 40.5, 49.5 and 19.6 in crop-livestock production systems, respectively. AFC and CI were significantly (P<0.05) affected by site and production system. Significantly longer AFS, AFC and CI were noticed in crop-livestock system than in the other 3 production systems. However, CI was not affected by age and parity.

English

A cross-sectional study was conducted in three selected Districts of Gambella Regional State (GRS) namely Lare, Itang and Gambella Zuria from March to October 2011 to determine seroprevalence of Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subsp capripnemoniae (Mccp) and to identify potential risk factors and to assess community perceptions about CCPP in the study area. Multistage sampling method was used in both agropastoral and sedentary production systems. A total of 1152 goat sera were collected and processed using the Complement Fixation Test (CFT) at the National Veterinary Institute (NVI), Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. A questionnaire survey was also conducted in 80 randomly selected households, and 3 veterinary staff one from each district. The overall mean CCPP seroprevalence in the study area was 18.1% (219/1152), (95% CI: 15.89-20.31). The seroprevalence of the disease in Itang was higher (24.7%) followed by Gambella Zuria (14.7%) and Lare (12.6%) District. Despite the higher seroprevalence in the agropoastoral production system (19.2%) the difference with that of the sedentary production system (14.7%) was not statistically significant (p>0.05). Univariate analysis showed that District, PA, sex and age were significantly associated with the seroprevalence result (p<0.05). Itang District showed significant difference in the seroprevalence when compared with Lare District (p = 0.0001; Odds ratio: 2.21). Opagna, Anguata, Badyel, Mecode, Meding Zuria, Bonga and Achewa PA’s had significant difference in seroprevalences with odds ratio ranging from 2.94 to 6.46. Female goats had a significantly different seroprevalence (19.3%) compared to males (11.5%) (p=0.014; OR=1.84). Adults (age greater than two years) showed higher seropositivity as compared to young goats and kids (p= 0.001 and OR=1.92). Age and PA were the only factors that showed statistically significant (p<0.05) associations in multivariate analysis. The questionnaire survey also revealed that CCPP was the `number one´ disease in the study areas; and wet-season presents a major risk factor for CCPP. The findings of this study showed that CCPP is the major disease of goats in the study area and hence there needs to be implemented appropriate control measure to mitigate the problem. Key words: Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, Mycoplasma capricolum subsp capripnemoniae (Mccp), goats, cross-sectional study, seroprevalence, risk factors, complement fixation test (CFT), Gambella region.

The Roles of Customary Institutions in Adaptation and Coping to Climate Change and Variability among the Issa, Ittu and Afar Pastoralists of eastern Ethiopia

Abstract(Agro) pastoral communities who reside in the arid and semi-arid environments of Ethiopia are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and variability specifically to the recurrent drought, floods and conflicts. From their long years of rich experiences of how to survive on such environmental pressures, (agro) pastoralists have also developed various forms of adaptation as well as coping strategies to the impacts of climate change and variability. Such strategies are closely guided and supervised by their customary institutions which have rich experiences in addressing the socio-economic/ cultural, political and environmental/ecological aspects. To mention some of the adaptation mechanisms in the study area are pastoral mobility; relying on traditional early warning mechanisms; area enclosures and preparing of hays/forage; diversifying livestock and selection of their species; the shift from pure form of pastoral to agropastoral production systems; and among others. Some of the coping strategies employed by the (agro) pastoralists are also their engagement in charcoal production and fire wood collections; the sell of their livestock, government support in the form of safety net and MERET project and their indigenous social support mechanisms; petty trading especially by women; brokering on livestock trade; engagement in contraband trade; searching for daily labor, and among others. The paper also tried to assess the roles of customary institutions in social support mechanisms to the problems posed by the impacts of climate change and variability to their age old traditional ways of livelihood mechanisms.

Sheep and goat production objectives in pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems in Chifra district of Afar, Ethiopia

The study was conducted in Chifra district in Awsi-Resu zone of Afar Regional State to explore production objectives and strategies of sheep and goats in pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems. Cross-sectional survey with systematic random selection of 180 households (90 households from each production system was conducted. Descriptive statistics, t test, chi-square test, analysis of variance, and ranking method were employed in analyzing data using JMP-5 software. In pastoral production system, sheep and goat were primarily reared for household milk consumption, followed by live animal savings and income, while in agro-pastoral production system, sheep and goat are primarily reared for income, followed by household milk consumption and manure supply, as live animal savings. Overall mortality rates of sheep and goats (4 to >12 months of age) were 9 and 9.5 % in pastoral production systems while 7 and 6 % in agro-pastoral production system. Average age at first mating, kidding interval, days of mating after birth, weaning age, lactation length, litter size, slaughtering age, and marketable age of sheep and goats in pastoral production system were 7.4 months, 358 days, 29 days, 4.2 months, 3.1 months, 1.5 lambs, 7.4 months, and 14 months, respectively, while in agro-pastoral production system, they are 6.9 months, 353.3 days, 28 days, 3.2 months, 1.6 lambs, 6.4 months, and 14.5 months, respectively. It was concluded that production system-based development interventions could help to increase the productivity of sheep and goats and thereby enhance the livelihood of smallholders.

The significance of dry forest income for livelihood resilience: The case of the pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in the drylands of southeastern Ethiopia

There is a growing interest to take into account dry forests in planning sustainable development in arid and semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa. A mixed quantitative and qualitative research design involving various data collection tools was employed to examine the significance of dry forest income and associated conditioning factors in the context of pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems of southeastern Ethiopia. Income from livestock and dry forests were the first and second most important components of the total household income. Dry forest income accounts 34.8% and 35.2% of the total household income and 38% and 46% of the total household cash income in the Liben and Afdher Administrative Zones of Somali National Regional State, respectively. It was the largest income compared to all other incomes added together for 45% of the respondents. Most notably, for very poor households, dry forest income contributes up to 63% of their total income. Dry forest income levels varied significantly with occupation (P<0.05), pastoralists generating more income than agro-pastoralists. Dry forest income enables 24% of households to remain above the poverty line, and it reduces income disparity by 13.7%. Moreover, dry forest income has become increasingly important for households' ex-ante risk and ex-post drought coping strategies. The number of youths per household (P<0.001), access to extension services (P<0.001), and being member of a cooperative (P<0.05) significantly affected dry forest income levels in both Zones. Findings of this study could apply to similar dryland eco-regions in the Horn of Africa and contribute to enhance promotion of sustainable management of dry forests for integrated livelihood adaptation, biodiversity conservation and combating desertification. Further research is needed to quantify the contribution dry forests make to livelihoods through livestock production and to develop options that will guide policy making process to generate additional economic incentives for communities and countries to be engaged in sustainable management and use of dry forests.

Participatory epidemiology and associated risk factors of foot-and-mouth disease in cattle in South Omo zone, South-Western Ethiopia

Participatory appraisal was applied to determine the major cattle diseases and investigate the epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in South Omo pastoral and agro-pastoral livestock production system. Furthermore, assessment of associated risk factors in particular concern to local production system was conducted by participatory appraisal. The participatory methods used were clinical observation, matrix ranking and scoring, proportional piling and seasonal calendar. The result of matrix ranking and scoring showed that hemorrhagic septicemia, contagious bovine pleuro pneumonia (CBPP), trypanosomosis, FMD, black leg and anthrax were the major diseases of cattle in South Omo zone. The finding of seasonal calendar indicated that incidence of FMD was found to be high during the dry season than cold dry season. The lowest incidence was reported during the rainy season. Similarly, contact of herds with wild animals increased during dry season than rainy season. Based on this finding participatory epidemiology was found to be an important approach in veterinary investigations and it can also be used besides to conventional approaches. Key words: Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), participatory appraisal, South Omo zone, cattle, risk factors.

Some risk factors for reproductive failures and contribution of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep and goats of Central Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study

Reproductive failure has a negative impact on animal production, health and welfare and ultimately rural economies. In Ethiopia, the factors affecting small ruminant reproductive efficiency are inadequately investigated. A cross-sectional survey was done from November, 2010 to May, 2011 to investigate risk factors of reproductive failures including Toxoplasma gondii infection. Analysis of 1372 sera (787 sheep and 585 goats) from 409 flocks using ELISA showed high flock (59.7%) and animal (31.8%) level T. gondii seroprevalence. An overall 24.9% (341/1372) annual abortion rate (19.6% in sheep and 32.0% in goats) was recorded. Animal level T. gondii seroprevalence was significantly associated with abortion in Ambo and Ada’a-Liben districts (Odds ratio [OR]=2.31, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.42, 3.76; P=0.001). Questionnaire survey on 199 households of Ambo, Ada’a-Liben and Fentale districts revealed high flock level abortion (57.5%), still birth (28.9%) and neonatal losses (47.9%), which are significantly different between study districts (P<0.001). Multivariable logistic regression model showed that species (goat), large flock size, pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems, drinking water from river and stagnant water bodies, grazing/browsing in plain land and extensive management were significant predictors of flock level reproductive failures. In the final Zero inflated Poisson regression model number of abortions was significantly higher in goat than in sheep flocks (Incidence risk ratio [IRR]=1.42, 95% CI: 1.08, 1.87; P=0.012). It is also significantly higher in pastoral (IRR=1.81, 95% CI: 1.16, 2.83; P=0.008) and agro-pastoral production systems (IRR=1.94, 95% CI: 1.32, 2.86; P=0.001) than in sedentary production system. Prevention of toxoplasmosis, improved husbandry practices and further epidemiological studies to identify causes of reproductive failures are recommended.

Bovine tuberculosis and its associated risk factors in pastoral and agro-pastoral cattle herds of Afar Region, Northeast Ethiopia

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) has a potential public health risk and economic impact in pastoralist community whose livelihood depends on their livestock. A cross-sectional study was carried out from September, 2008 to June, 2011 on 1087 cattle under pastoral and agro-pastoral production system in four districts of Afar Pastoral Region of Ethiopia using comparative intradermal tuberculin skin test to estimate the prevalence of BTB and assess the associated risk factors for infection. The individual animal prevalence of BTB in cattle of Afar pastoralists was 11% (95% confidence interval (CI): 9 to 13%) with ≥ 4 mm cut-off and 18% (95% CI: 16% to 21%) with ≥2 mm cut-off. The herd prevalence was 44% (95% CI: 36 to 51%) and 56% (95% CI: 48 to 63%) at ≥4 and ≥2 mm cut-off points, respectively. In bivariate analysis, the prevalence was significantly associated with study districts, herd size, sex and age, and in multivariable logistic regression analysis, the statistical significance was maintained with study district, age and herd size of the cattle. In conclusion, the present study revealed a moderately high prevalence of BTB in Afar Pastoral Region of Ethiopia and further investigation is recommended to assess the zoonotic significance of the disease to the pastoralist communities of the region. Key words: Bovine tuberculosis, prevalence, risk factors, comparative intradermal tuberculin test, Afar pastoral region, Ethiopia.

Changing water regime and adaptation strategies in Upper Mustang Valley of Upper Kaligandaki Basin in Nepal

Recent climate change has brought changes to the water regime that has affected the traditional agro-pastoral production systems and livelihoods in the Upper Kaligandaki Basin of the Nepal Himalayas. Based on fieldwork and available meteorological and hydrological data, this paper examines the changing water regime and various adaptation strategies that local farmers have adopted in this cold arid region. Increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall and snowfall have resulted in a negative water balance. In this scenario, farmers have implemented six major adaptive strategies in the trans-Himalayan Upper Mustang Valley.

A study on seroprevalence of caprine brucellosis under three livestock production systems in southern and central Ethiopia

Caprine brucellosis in Ethiopia is less commonly reported with limited information on the disease status in the country. The objective of this study was therefore to highlight the status of goat brucellosis in three distinctly different livestock production systems of southern and central Ethiopia. A total 3,315 goats of different age and sex, living with other animals in variable flock size, were sampled from 448 flocks raised in sedentary, pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems. Goats were bled aseptically and sera were collected for serial testing using Rose Bengal Plate Test as screening test and subsequently complement fixation test as confirmatory test. Questionnaire and laboratory data were analysed for descriptive, univariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis both at individual and flock level (STATA 11). The study revealed an overall animal level seroprevalence of 1.9 % (95 % CI 1.5, 2.4). In sedentary production system, the observed seroprevalence was 0.6 % (95 % CI 0.2, 0.9) while 1.9 % (95 % CI 1.1, 2.7) and 7.6 % (95 % CI 5.1, 10.1) were the proportion of seroreactors for agro-pastoral and pastoral production systems, respectively. The observed prevalence difference between the three production systems was statistically significant (P < 0.05). At the flock level analysis, 11.2 % (95 % CI 8.2, 14.1) of the flocks sampled had at least one seropositive goat among themselves. Like individual level analysis, the highest prevalence of 32.5 % (95 % CI 21.9, 43.0) was recorded for pastoral production system, followed by agro-pastoral, 13.0 % (95 % CI 7.0, 19.0) and sedentary production system, 3.6 % (95% CI 1.3, 6.0). Accordingly, the odds of Brucella seropositivity were higher (OR = 12.8) in pastoral followed by agro-pastoral (OR = 4.0) in relation to sedentary production system. Large numbers of seroreactors were observed in adult age living in larger flocks with other livestock species. However, no difference was noted between male and female goats. Finally, the need for nationwide survey and subsequent designing and implementation of appropriate control measure is suggested.

Participatory impact assessment of ticks on cattle milk production in pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems of Borana Zone, Oromia Regional State, Southern Ethiopia

Participatory impact assessment of ticks on Borana cattle milk production was conducted from January 2010 to July 2010. The objectives of this study were to assess the status of tick infestation in relation to climate change, teats blinding and milk production and to estimate the economic losses caused as a result of the effect of ticks on dairy cattle and its implications on food security in Yabello, Moyale and Meo districts of Borana zone. Multi-stage sampling technique was employed and the data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and matrix triangulation. Thus, about six villages “ Ollas ” were systematically identified and a total of 86 households were interviewed employing questionnaires comprising 6-12 pastoralists and agropastoralists per ten PAs which in sum contained 60-120 individuals who provided information pertaining to the objectives set; in which increase of ticks population at an alarming rate was perceived having several factors affecting and its real impact of blinding on teats which signal loss of milk production which in fact revealed economic loss and implicated food insecurity on vulnerable social groups, specifically children and elders >80 years old within the settings. Tick resistance to currently available acaricides was complained by communities. It was observed that acaricides were sold in open market and there was no strong control on illegal veterinary drug vendors. Communities also purchase these acaricides and misuse them which, contributed to the increase of acaricide resistance. This is a good indication for policy makers and local authorities to take strict action on illegal drug vendors.

Study on seroprevalence, risk factors, and economic impact of foot-and-mouth disease in Borena pastoral and agro-pastoral system, southern Ethiopia

Cross-sectional serological study and questionnaire survey were conducted in Borana pastoral and agro-pastoral area to determine seroprevalence and risk factors associated with foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) infection and to assess community perceptions as to importance of the disease. A multistage random sampling was carried out to select cattle for seroprevalence and households for interviews. Totally, 768 sera were collected from 111 herds. The overall individual level seroprevalence of 23.0% (n = 177) and herd level seroprevalence of 58.6% (n = 65) were recorded using 3ABC ELISA test. The variation of individual level seroprevalence in districts were statistically significant (P < 0.05) which was 29.9% in Arero, 24.0% in Yabello, and 15.7% in Teltele. From multivariate logistic regression analysis, herd size and age were seen to be significantly (P < 0.05) associated with FMD seroprevalence. The result of the questionnaire survey based on 120 respondents indicated that, the daily milk yield of cows infected with FMD during outbreaks is reduced to an average of 0.5 L for 25.5 days while cows developing heat-intolerance syndrome after acute infection gave an average 0.67 L for 3.8 months and their calving interval prolonged about 12 months. The questionnaire survey in agro-pastoral area of Borena also indicated that FMD-infected oxen remained off-plough for one season when outbreaks occur in cropping time, whereas heat-intolerant oxen were no longer used for traction. These findings of the present study indicated that FMD is a highly prevalent and economically important disease in the Borana pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems which need effective control strategy for the disease.

Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS) for determination of chemical entities of natural pasture from Ethiopia

In the mixed crop-livestock farming system of Ethiopia, natural pasture production is related to seasonal rainfall distribution which is restricted to only a few months of the year. Livestock owners in this country experience periods of excess forage in the rain season where preserving it through haymaking became tradition as a strategy for the periods of scarcity, particularly the dry season of a year. Forage can also be stored as standing hay, the cheapest way of conserving forage, in a place like pastoral and agro-pastoral production system where a decline in quality can be tolerated. Mixed grass-legume pasture samples from different agro-ecology were collected and portion of the samples were analyzed conventionally to determine their chemical composition (dry matter, ash, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, lignin) and in vitro dry matter digestibility to validate the NIRS calibration. NIRS was evaluated by the coefficient of determination in calibration (R 2 ), standard error of calibration (SEC), and standard error of cross validation (SECV). The results showed NIRS is extremely useful for predicting nutrient contents as compared to conventional chemical analysis methods which are not difficult to conduct, but they are expensive in terms of time and resources.

The prevalence of trypanosomosis, helminthosis and tick-borne infections in agro-pastoral production system in Kenya

A cross-sectional study was undertaken to assess prevalence of trypanosomosis, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, ECF and helminth infections and factors associated with them in Kajiado District, Kenya. Purposive and random selection procedures were used to identify participating pastoralists and animals from Olkilamatian and Shompole group ranches (GR). Data were gathered using questionnaires and animal screening for prevalence of infections, and analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis. Pastoralists had low level of formal education of 5.8 years and total livestock holding of 232 valued at US$11619. There was substantial breed improvement in the area. Prevalence of infections were, ECF 26.5%, anaplasmosis 61%, babesiosis 24%, trypanosomosis 4.9% and helminthosis 6.3% suggesting that these animal herds were important sources of infection to naïve and immuno-compromised animals. There is need of understanding the extensive production system and instituting appropriate management and disease control measures likely to reduce sources of infections.Key words: Agropastoralists, Anaplasmosis, babesiosis, ECF, helminthosis, trypanosomosis

Serological survey of antibodies to Ehrlichia ruminantium in small ruminants in Tanzania

Sera from 497 sheep and 555 goats collected in a cross sectional study from different geographical locations in north-eastern Tanzania were examined for antibodies to Ehrlichia ruminantium using MAP 1-B ELISA technique. E. ruminantium antibodies were found in 68.6% (341/497) of sheep and 64.7% (359/555) of goats. Overall seroprevalence was 66.5% (700/1052). Infection rates were higher in sheep than goats (P < 0.05), in pastoral than in agro-pastoral production systems (P < 0.05) and in female sheep than males (P < 0.05). (131/143) 91.6% of the farms/flocks tested revealed sero-positive animals. E.ruminantium infections were found in all the geographical villages and districts tested. The infection rates per administrative district varied from 36.4% (Muheza) to 90% (Mkinga) in goats and from 11.9% (Muheza) to 94.6% (Mkinga) in sheep. The results shows E. ruminantium infection was prevalent and widely but unevenly distributed throughout the eight districts under study. These findings should be taken into consideration when future disease control and livestock upgrading programs are implemented.

A cross-sectional study of bovine tuberculosis in the transhumant and agro-pastoral cattle herds in the border areas of Katakwi and Moroto districts, Uganda

A study to determine the prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in the transhumant and agro-pastoral cattle herds in the border areas of Katakwi and Moroto districts in Uganda was carried out from July 2006 to January 2007 using comparative intradermal tuberculin test containing bovine and avian PPDs. A total of 1470 animals, 612 (41.6%) males and 858 (58.4%) females, 883 (60%) young, 555 (37.8%) adult and 32 (2.2%) old animals were included. The study involved a cross-sectional multistage sampling technique with random selection of individual animals from a herd. The results revealed a 1.3% overall prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle herds in the study area, with a marked variation between sub-counties. The highest recorded prevalence was 6.0% in Kapujan, while no cases were recorded in Ongogonja, Magoro and Katakwi sub-counties. Distinctly different patterns in the avian-bovine reactions were also found in different sub-counties. A multivariate logistic regression showed more positive reactions (OR = 6.3; 95%CI (1.4-26.34) in females than males. BTB prevalence did not differ significantly between cattle maintained in pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems. The study demonstrated a relatively low prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in local zebu cattle reared under traditional husbandry systems in Uganda, suggesting low infectiousness of the disease under such mode of production. The risk associated with the consumption of raw milk among the pastoral communities and that, the pooling of milk together from different animals is a common practice, warrants more investigation into the zoonotic transmission of tuberculosis within these communities.

Ecological implications of Fulbe pastoralism in southwestern Nigeria

AbstractThe study used a combination of ethno‐social surveys and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) to assess 651 pastoral households and their land use under agropastoral production systems in Ogun State, Nigeria. Yields of arable crops on agropastoralists' fields were generally low. Livestock productivity was similar on all parameters to levels in comparable contexts elsewhere across the West African subregion, but generally below possible potentials and on‐farm research findings. Pastoral households' activities presently influence between 221 km2 and 523 km2 of land in Ogun State. Pastoral grazing orbits extended beyond administrative boundaries, causing potential conflicts between local crop farmers and agropatoralists. Much of the land‐cover has been altered considerably around the areas of pastoral household settlements compared with the situation 20 years ago. It was concluded that a form of intervention was needed that would guarantee sustainability of the land‐use system. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

A land-use system and the challenge of sustainable ago- pastoral production in southwestern Nigeria

SUMMARY The study is focused on land use in agro-pastoral production in Ogun State. Using a combination of data from ethno-social surveys, remote sensing and geographical information systems (GIS), the study has characterized the overall agro-pastoral production system, with emphasis on population, land use and herd productivity. It was found that yields of arable crops on agro pastoralists' fields were generally low due, perhaps, to the low genetic potentials of seed varieties used, poor soil conditions and poor land management practices. Livestock productivity was similar on all parameters to levels in similar contexts elsewhere across the West African subregion but generally below possible potentials and research station findings. Much of the land cover had been considerably altered around the areas of pastoral household settlements compared with the situation 20 years ago. Agro-pastoral households currently use between 221 km2 and 523 km2 of land in Ogun State. Pastoral grazing orbits extend beyond the boundaries of the State in the northeastern areas and beyond the boundaries of the country into the Republic of Benin in the northwest. These areas represent potential conflict areas between crop farmers and agro-pastoralists. There was a direct and positive relationship between population density in pastoral household settlements and the area of land disturbed. It was recommended that there was a need for deliberate land-use planning intervention by government to ensure long-term peaceful co-existence of farmers and agro-pastoral producers. It was concluded that further studies should focus on establishing a clear link between the land-use practices of agro-pastoralists and their specific effects on soil conditions, ecological succession and the overall farming systems.

Meat goat production and marketing.

Production opportunities, management strategies, and marketing options for meat goats in the United States are reviewed in this manuscript. The basis for any expansion must be goat production systems that are biologically and economically sustainable, meeting both producer and consumer needs. Meat goats historically have been kept for brush control. Their use to control noxious plants and in vegetation management will continue to be their primary role in the future. Meat goats are rarely the primary animal production enterprise in the United States, but they are becoming increasingly important contributors to the income of many producers. Meat goat marketing is highly unstructured in the United States, yet prices are generally higher on a per unit of weight basis than other red meat-producing species. Efforts to organize marketing have had only limited success. Over 90% of the world's goats are in developing countries. Goats are increasingly important in these countries as subsistence food producers. Production systems range from goats being a part of nomadic multispecies herds on arid desert rangelands, in agropastoral production systems, to goats being the primary animal enterprise in smallholder farming systems.