Agro-industrial Wastes Research Articles

Co-composting: A Comprehensive Review of Its Potential in Transforming Coir Pith Waste into Nutrient-rich Manure

Coir industries in India generates around 7.5Mt of coir waste yearly, which is unsuitable for agricultural use due to its high C:N ratio, lignin, phenol, cellulose and tannin content. The accumulation of coir pith leads to adverse environmental problems due to the release of phenolic compounds, lignin, tannins etc. Biodegradation or composting is the best way to manage coir waste and thereby the environmental pollution can be avoided. Co-composting is a method of decomposing multiple organic materials, which aims to create stable humus, and overcome the limitations of composting with a single organic source. Co-composting of coir pith reduces the C:N ratio, lignin content, cellulose content and increases the nutrient contents. In co-composting technology more than one feed stock are used for composting. It can be done by treating the coir pith with organic source of nutrients viz., farm yard manure or poultry manure or agro-industrial wastes or green manure crops or leguminous weeds or treating the coir pith with organic wastes and earthworms, or treating the coir pith lignin degrading micro-organisms and or supplementing the coir pith with lime, rock phosphate etc. along with the organic sources of nutrients mentioned above to speed up the composting process. Co-composting of coir pith resulted in the production of nutrient rich organic manure within a short period of time. Application of coir pith compost had significant effect on the growth and yield attributes of crops. Harnessing the potential of coir pith can lead us towards a more sustainable and greener future.

Portuguese Grapevine Leaves: A Neglected By-Product with High Potential

In Portugal, grapevine leaves are generally treated as agro-industrial waste, despite being rich in bioactive compounds that offer benefits to human health. This study compiles the most relevant and current data on the phytochemical composition and bioactive properties of grape leaves from both red and white varieties cultivated in the country. These by-products are abundant in flavonoid and non-flavonoid phenolic compounds, such as flavonols, derivatives of hydroxycinnamic acids, carotenoid pigments, and chlorophylls, as well as fatty acids, which have scientifically proven antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, cardio-, neuro- and hepatoprotective properties, among others. The combination of these beneficial properties, along with the low toxicity of their compounds, makes grapevine leaves a by-product with great potential for use in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. The key challenge is to develop sustainable methods to reintegrate this by-product into the supply chain, in alignment with the sustainability goals of the 2030 Agenda.

High removal of volatile organic compounds on hierarchical carbons prepared from agro-industrial waste of banana fruit production for air decontamination.

Activated carbons were prepared from residues from agro-industrial banana production (banana pseudostem) and evaluated in the capture of five different volatile organic compounds (VOCs): dichloromethane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, hexane, and cyclohexane. The biomass was first submitted to a hydrothermal treatment in the presence of KOH or ZnCl2 as activating agents, followed by a dry pyrolysis. This new advance in methodology contributes to producing activated carbons with hierarchical porosity and high surface areas (701-1312 m2g-1), promoting increased interest in managing waste from banana fruit agricultural production. VOC capture studies were performed by thermal analysis, and capture capacities were similar to or higher than those presented in the literature. Higher adsorption capacities were related to the amount of available micropores, and the capture capacity was enhanced by the contribution of small mesopores. As the highest adsorbed amounts of dichloromethane (933mgg-1 at 25°C) were obtained for the material activated with ZnCl2 (1:3), further studies were carried out for this system. The experimental data was fitted using a pseudo-first-order kinetic model. A study was carried out in different atmospheres (He, N2, air), showing that co-adsorption is occurring. Under simulated environmental conditions, the capture capacity decreased slightly at equilibrium, and the new adsorbent was used for up to ten cycles without significantly losing its efficiency, indicating good application in the field.

Reappraisal of different agro-industrial waste for the optimization of cellulase production from Aspergillus niger ITV02 in a liquid medium using a Box-Benkhen design.

High-value metabolites, such as enzymes and biofuels, can be produced from various agro-industrial waste containing high percentages of cellulose and hemicellulose. Aspergillus niger ITV02 demonstrates high potential in cellulases production, the key enzyme for converting lignocellulosic materials into fermentable sugars to produce second-generation bioethanol (bioethanol 2G). This study evaluated five lignocellulosic residues of agricultural importance: sugarcane bagasse (SCB), sorghum bagasse (SB), corn stubble (CS), barley straw (BS) and rice husk (RH) as substrates for cellulase production. The temperature, pH and stirring conditions were optimized using a Box-Behnken design to identify the most suitable conditions for cellulase production while minimizing nitrogen concentrations. The results indicate that the best way of propagation A. niger ITV02 is through the use of spores as an inoculant, in conjunction with the use of materials with a high cellulose/lignin ratio, such as CS and SB for the generation of cellulases. These conditions promote the expression of cellulases towards β-glucosidase production, unlike materials with lower cellulose/lignin ratios like BS and RH, which exhibited lower cellulase activity. The optimal conditions for cellulase production by A. niger ITV02 were determined to be 33 °C, pH 5.3, and 200rpm, resulting in a 1.7-fold increase in Exoglucanase (FPase activity) (from 0.127 to 0.215 U/mL). These findings demonstrate the potential to enhance FPase activity by utilizing substrates with high cellulose/lignin content and implementing optimal operational conditions without the need to raise the nitrogen content of the basal medium, thus mitigating the economic impact of cellulase production.

New Perspectives on Lactic Acid Production from Renewable Agro-Industrial Wastes

Since its initial discovery in sour milk by Swedish chemist C [...]

Production of high-calorific hybrid biofuel pellets from urban plastic waste and agro-industrial by-products

Advances in waste-to-energy technology and sustainable fuel production drive significant changes in the energy industry. These innovative solutions not only address waste management challenges but also contribute to broadening the energy source matrix and reducing dependence on traditional fossil fuels. This study evaluates the incorporation of polyethylene and polypropylene urban plastic waste in various agro-industrial by-product blends, which combine beet pulp, radiata pine, and eucalyptus bark wastes. The generation of the hybrid biofuel from agro-industrial waste and domestic solid waste in pellet form is investigated to determine the optimal blends in terms of durability, ash generation and calorific value. Both urban plastics incorporated in the mixtures not only significantly increase the calorific energy value but also promote the binding of the solid biofuel components. The polypropylene-based urban plastic pellet exhibited superior binding capacity and lower ash generation, even in complex hydroxyl functional groups. It also displayed suitable properties for solid biofuels, such as low fine content, high durability, and dimensional stability. The highest resulting calorific value of 22.6 MJ/kg was determined for the mass ratio of the blend with 99% durability, 0.23% fines content, and 5.1% combustion ash generation. This new hybrid biofuel is presented as a sustainable option and a significant contribution in the field of waste-to-energy technology and renewable energy production. The production cost of the hybrid biofuel is competitive with wood-based biofuels, with only a 6.25% increase observed for pellets made from 50% wood and 20% beet pulp compared to traditional 100% wood pellets. However, significant cost reductions were achieved through specific configurations, resulting in savings of 14.8%. The novel hybrid biofuel requires only 9.2 MJ/kg to produce 22.6 MJ/kg, demonstrating significant energy impact and viability as a sustainable energy source in waste-to-energy technology and renewable energy production.

An Evaluation of Biochar Derived from Agro-Industrial Waste as an Alternative Material for the Elimination of Pathogenic Load from Water

The contamination of water bodies is becoming more frequent due to uncontrolled discharges into them, including those of domestic or industrial wastewater (WW) characterized by the presence of heavy metals, a high pathogenic load, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals, among other pollutants, which represent a risk to both humans and the health of the ecosystem. Consequently, conventional water treatment processes have been implemented. However, they are not efficient enough. In this regard, exploring and analyzing new alternatives and sustainable systems that efficiently degrade the different pollutants found in WW are required, and biochar can be considered as an attractive treatment option, since it is an adsorbent carbonaceous material that allows for the removal of several pollutants. The generation and use of biochar contribute to the promotion of the circular bioeconomy and the achievement of sustainable development goals by enhancing the reuse and recycling of agricultural and agro-industrial waste as raw material for its production. The objective of this work is to evaluate the utilization of biochar as an alternative material for the elimination of the pathogenic load in water.

Cost-Effective Optimization of the Transfructosylation Activity of an Invertase Produced from Aspergillus carbonarius PC-4 Using Pineapple Crown and Determination of Its Biochemical Properties

Fructooligosaccharides are prebiotic sugars that are widely used in the production of functional foods, which can be produced enzymatically by the transfructosylation reaction of sucrose. This work aimed to optimize the production of an invertase with high transfructosylation activity from Aspergillus carbonarius PC-4 using pineapple crown as the inducer substrate and evaluate its biochemical properties. The culture medium was optimized using a Plackett–Burman experimental design and a central composite rotatable design, resulting in a maximum transfructosylation activity of 65.33 U/mL at 72 h of cultivation. The cultivation parameters were Yp/s = 1070.75 U/g and PP = 2771.48 U/h, which showed an increase of 5.2-fold in the enzyme produced. The optimum temperature (50 °C) and pH (5.0) for the enzymatic activity were obtained by a CCR design. The enzyme showed a half-life of 60 min at 40 °C. In conclusion, the invertase produced from A. carbonarius PC-4 using agro-industrial waste (pineapple crown) and an inorganic nitrogen source (ammonium nitrate) exhibits high transfructosylation activity that can be used as a potential source for the production of fructooligosaccharides.

Extraction of bioactive components from date palm waste, various extraction processes and their applications: A review

Dates are vital sources of nutrients and bioactive components which are widely consumed throughout the world. Agro-industrial waste, such as date palm waste, has been recognized as a potential candidate of bioactive chemicals and essential oils for utilization in food, medicine, and cosmetics. Date fruit and seed are well-known for their nutritional worth, which includes high sugar, vitamins, and mineral content that includes potassium and magnesium. Presence of phenolic compounds diverges the attention of researchers towards efficient extraction processes. Various traditional e.g., soxhlet, maceration, infusion, and digesting and advanced extraction techniques, i.e., pressurised fluid extraction (PFE), enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), and supercritical CO2 extraction (SC-CO2) have been discussed briefly to extract bioactive components for instance flavonoids, tocopherols, tannins, carotenoids, tocotrienols and hydroxybenzoic acid from date palm fruit, seed, and leaves. The findings reveal that the higher total phenolic content in a shorter time can be obtained by combining ultrasonic with PLE or SFE extraction techniques. These bioactive components can be used in the food and pharmaceutical industries for pre-treatment of certain ailments. Moreover, the natural bioactive components with potential therapeutic benefits, such as non-starch polysaccharides and selenium. The purpose of this study is to highlight the advances achieved in understanding bioactive components e.g., phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tannins hydroxycinnamic, hydroxybenzoic and bio-oil of date palm fruits, including their synthesis, probable functions, and health advantages, to find prospective uses for date-derived materials in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical and food sector.

Fruit Wastes and Crop Residues as Nutrient Sources for Bacterial Nanocellulose Production: A Review

Nanocellulose has been developed and used as a bio-based advanced material in modern biotechnology. Lately, bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) emerged as a prominent biopolymer because of its multi-functional application in various industries, such as food, biomedical, cosmetics, and environmental. The emerging concern for large-scale BNC production is the high fermentation costs, low productivity, and expensive culture medium. To minimise this issue, agro-industrial wastes can be used as feedstock. Recently, many studies have investigated the utilization of agro-industrial wastes as potential nutrient sources for BNC production. However, a comprehensive review of BNC production from fruit wastes and crop residues is lacking. To address this gap, the current review focuses on the utilization of fruit wastes and crop residues for BNC production, including its advantages and disadvantages. This study contributes to the scientific community by (a) providing an insight into fruit waste and crop residue utilization for BNC synthesis (b) an overview on its advantages and disadvantages (c) providing recommendations and future perspectives on BNC production from agro-industrial waste utilization. The sustainable concept of BNC production utilizing agro-industrial wastes opens a way for industries to produce BNC on a larger scale.

Pharmaceutical Pollutants: Ecotoxicological Impacts and the Use of Agro-Industrial Waste for Their Removal from Aquatic Environments.

Medicines are pharmaceutical substances used to treat, prevent, or relieve symptoms of different diseases in animals and humans. However, their large-scale production and use worldwide cause their release to the environment. Pharmaceutical molecules are currently considered emerging pollutants that enter water bodies due to inadequate management, affecting water quality and generating adverse effects on aquatic organisms. Hence, different alternatives for pharmaceuticals removal from water have been sought; among them, the use of agro-industrial wastes has been proposed, mainly because of its high availability and low cost. This review highlights the adverse ecotoxicological effects related to the presence of different pharmaceuticals on aquatic environments and analyzes 94 investigations, from 2012 to 2024, on the removal of 17 antibiotics, highlighting sulfamethoxazole as the most reported, as well as 6 non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as diclofenac and ibuprofen, and 27 pharmaceutical drugs with different pharmacological activities. The removal of these drugs was evaluated using agro-industrial wastes such as wheat straw, mung bean husk, bagasse, bamboo, olive stones, rice straw, pinewood, rice husk, among others. On average, 60% of the agro-industrial wastes were transformed into biochar to be used as a biosorbents for pharmaceuticals removal. The diversity in experimental conditions among the removal studies makes it difficult to stablish which agro-industrial waste has the greatest removal capacity; therefore, in this review, the drug mass removal rate (DMRR) was calculated, a parameter used with comparative purposes. Almond shell-activated biochar showed the highest removal rate for antibiotics (1940 mg/g·h), while cork powder (CP) (10,420 mg/g·h) showed the highest for NSAIDs. Therefore, scientific evidence demonstrates that agro-industrial waste is a promising alternative for the removal of emerging pollutants such as pharmaceuticals substances.

New Eco-Cements Made with Marabou Weed Biomass Ash

Biomass ash is currently attracting the attention of science and industry as an inexhaustible eco-friendly alternative to pozzolans traditionally used in commercial cement manufacture (fly ash, silica fume, natural/calcined pozzolan). This paper explores a new line of research into Marabou weed ash (MA), an alternative to better-known conventional agro-industry waste materials (rice husk, bagasse cane, bamboo, forest waste, etc.) produced in Cuba from an invasive plant harvested as biomass for bioenergy production. The study entailed full characterization of MA using a variety of instrumental techniques, analysis of pozzolanic reactivity in the pozzolan/lime system, and, finally its influence on the physical and mechanical properties of binary pastes and mortars containing 10% and 20% MA replacement content. The results indicate that MA has a very low acid oxide content and a high loss on ignition (30%) and K2O content (6.9%), which produces medium–low pozzolanic activity. Despite an observed increase in the blended mortars’ total and capillary water absorption capacity and electrical resistivity and a loss in mechanical strength approximately equivalent to the replacement percentage, the 10% and 20% MA blended cements meet the regulatory chemical, physical, and mechanical requirements specified. Marabou weed ash is therefore a viable future supplementary cementitious material.

Exploring the Biological Value of Red Grape Skin: Its Incorporation and Impact on Yogurt Quality.

The study was conducted to study the sustainability and enhanced nutrition gains obtained from incorporating grape skin powder (GSP) extracted from both Fetească Neagră and Rară Neagră grape varieties into yogurt. Grape skins are major leftovers from wineries, having high amounts of phenolic compounds and dietary fiber responsible for their ability to improve the characteristics of food. The research aimed to evaluate the effect of GSP addition at varying concentrations (0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%) on the yogurt's physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, color parameters, and sensory attributes. Analysis revealed that both Fetească Neagră and Rară Neagră GSP increased the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity; however, Fetească Neagră showed greater improvements, with TPC reaching 1.52 mg GAE/100 g and DPPH inhibition up to 26.63%. Although slightly lower, TPC rose to 1.43 mg GAE/100 g and DPPH inhibition increased to 18.93% with Rară Neagră enhancing these parameters conversely. Color changes were observed in fortified yogurts where lightness decreased (L*) and redness increased (a*) due to the pH-dependent anthocyanin stability. Syneresis, indicative of yogurt's water-holding capacity, was reduced at higher concentrations of GSP from both varieties, suggesting improved textural integrity. Sensory evaluation indicated that consumers generally favored yogurts with lower concentrations of GSP. Yogurts fortified with Fetească Neagră GSP received higher overall preference, while those with Rară Neagră GSP were also well-received for their distinct flavor profiles when used at suitable levels. These results show that GSP from both types of grapes improves the nutritional value of yogurt and complies with the principles of sustainable food production through reutilizing agro-industrial waste.

Economic viability assessment of bioenergy production from agroindustrial wastes through fast pyrolysis

Spanish mainland crops, including olives, almonds, and pistachios, play a pivotal role in capital circulation and employment generation. This comprehensive study explores the economic feasibility on the utilization of diverse agro-industrial wastes from Spanish harvests as a promising feedstock for bioenergy production through fast pyrolysis. The fast pyrolysis process is simulated using Aspen Plus® software, employing techno-economic parameters such as Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), Payback Period (PBP), break-even, and minimum product sales price to analyze economic viability of the project. Two different scenarios, based on experimental data from previous studies, are compared. The profitability of this proposal is closely linked to the harvest, which serves as a limiting factor. In all scenarios, the project requires two years to recover the initial investment, demonstrating significant profits once production begins. When considering the impact of scaling up, the NPV of Scenario 2 for PS reached €369.55 M€. Sensitivity analysis reveals that the profitability of pyrolysis depends on the bio-oil selling price and the total production volume. Overall, this study confirms the economic viability of producing bioenergy through fast pyrolysis using various biomass residues. It highlights the potential of harnessing bioenergy from Spanish agro-industrial waste, paving the way for sustainable and economically viable solutions, as indicated by the NPV and IRR metrics.

Transforming Agro-Industrial Waste into Bioplastic Coating Films.

Addressing the environmental impact of agro-industrial waste, this study explores the transformation of banana, potato, and orange peels into bioplastics suitable for thin coating films. We prepared six extracts at 100 g/L, encompassing individual (banana peel, BP; orange peel, OP; and potato peel, PP) and combined [BP/OP, BP/PP, and BP/OP/PP] formulations, with yeast mold (YM) medium serving as the control. Utilizing the spin-coating method, we applied 1 mL of each sample at 1000 rpm for 1 min to create the films. Notably, the OP extract demonstrated a twofold increase in bioplastic yield (860.33 mg/L) compared to the yields of BP (391.43 mg/L), PP (357.67 mg/L), BP/OP (469.40 mg/L), BP/PP (382.50 mg/L), BP/OP/PP (272.67 mg/L), and YM (416.33 mg/L) extracts. Atomic force microscopy analysis of the film surfaces revealed a roughness under 8 nm, with the OP extract recording the highest at 7.0275 nm, whereas the BP/OP mixture exhibited the lowest roughness at 0.2067 nm and also formed the thinnest film at 6.5 nm. With R2 trend values exceeding 0.9950, the films exhibited water vapor permeability values ranging from 3.05 × 10-3 to 4.44 × 10-3, with the OP film being the least permeable and the BP/PP films the most permeable. The OP film demonstrated the lowest solubility in both water and ethanol with values of 64.71 and 1.05%, respectively. The solubilities of all films were above 60% in water and below 4% in ethanol. Furthermore, the films exhibited antimicrobial efficacy against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Our findings confirm the potential of utilizing banana, orange, and potato peels as viable substrates for eco-friendly bioplastics in thin-film applications.

Copper nanoparticles biosynthesis by Priestia megaterium and its application as antibacterial and antitumor agents

The growth of material science and technology places high importance on creating better processes for synthesizing copper nanoparticles. Thus, an easy, ecological, and benign process for producing copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) has been developed using Priestia sp. bacteria utilizing a variety of low-cost agro-industrial wastes and byproducts. The biosynthesis of CuNPs was conducted using glucose medium and copper ions salt solution, then it was replaced by utilizing low-cost agro-industrial wastes. UV–visible spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), High-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM), Attenuated Total Reflectance and Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR), and zeta potential were used to characterize the biosynthesized CuNPs. The cytotoxicity of CuNPs using Vero -CCL-81 cell lines, and antibacterial and antitumor properties using human colon epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma Caco-2-HTB-37 cell lines were assessed. The UV–visible and DLS studies revealed CuNPs formation, with a maximum concentration of 6.19 ppm after 48 h, as indicated by a 0.58 Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) within 450 nm and 57.73 nm particle size. The 16S rRNA gene analysis revealed that Priestia sp. isolate is closely related to Priestia megaterium and has been deposited in the NCBI GenBank with accession number AMD 2024. The biosynthesis with various agro-industrial wastes indicated blackstrap sugar cane molasses being the most effective for reducing CuNPs size to 3.12 nm owing to various reducing and stabilizing active compounds. The CuNPs were free of contaminants, with a sphere-shaped structure and a cytotoxicity assessment with an IC50 of 367.27 μg/mL. The antibacterial activity exhibited by the most susceptible bacteria were Bacillus cereus ATCC 11788 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538 with inhibition zones of 26.0 mm and 28.0 mm, respectively. The antitumor effect showed an IC50 dose of 175.36 μg/mL. Based on the findings, the current work sought to lower product costs and provide a practical solution to the environmental contamination issues brought on by the buildup of agricultural wastes. In addition, the obtained CuNPs could be applied in many fields such as pharmaceuticals, water purification, and agricultural applications as future aspects.

Development of sustainable, high strength slag based alkali activated pavement quality concrete using agro-industrial wastes: properties and life cycle analysis

ABSTRACT Alkali-activated binder-based composites offer a sustainable alternative to cement-based systems, giving a conservational approach. This research incorporated rice-husk ash (RHA) and waste foundry sand (WFS) into ground-granulated-blast-furnace slag (GGBS)-based alkali-activated high-end pavement-quality concretes, optimising with air-curing for expressways, freeways and runway applications. This study promotes sustainable construction by efficiently utilising agro-industrial wastes (i.e., RHA, GGBS and WFS) promoting a global initiative to decrease environmental impact and to adopt eco-friendly pavement construction methods. This study systematically substitutes the primary binder-GGBS with RHA at 5% intervals. The binder was alkali-activated using measured amounts of liquid sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide flakes prepared at an activator modulus (Ms) of 1.25 by maintaining the sodium oxide dosage of 4.0% with respect to the total binder. In particular, 15% RHA (with 85% GGBS) and 20% WFS (with 80% river sand) satisfy mechanical design standards for workability and strength. A comprehensive life cycle analysis using extensive literature support assesses the environmental impact and sustainability of developed pavement quality composites, showing over 70% less energy use than Portland cement-based pavement mixes. Therefore, employing RHA and WFS in air-cured alkali-activated composite manufacture shows that agro-industrial waste components may be used to make sustainable, cost-effective pavement construction. This study effectively advocates for a shift towards environmentally responsible pavement construction, contributing to a greener, more sustainable future in concrete pavement engineering.

A Review of Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Characterization, Production, and Application from Waste

The search for alternatives to petrochemical plastics has intensified, with increasing attention being directed toward bio-based polymers (bioplastics), which are considered healthier and more environmentally friendly options. In this review, a comprehensive overview of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) is provided, including their characterization, applications, and the mechanisms underlying their biosynthesis. PHAs are natural polyesters produced by a wide range of prokaryotic and some eukaryotic organisms, positioning them as a significant and widely studied type of bioplastic. Various strategies for the production of PHAs from agroindustrial waste, such as cacao shells, cheese whey, wine, wood, and beet molasses, are reviewed, emphasizing their potential as sustainable feedstocks. Industrial production processes for PHAs, including the complexities associated with extraction and purification, are also examined. Although the use of waste materials offers promise in reducing costs and environmental impact, challenges remain in optimizing these processes to enhance efficiency and cost-effectiveness. The need for continued research and development to improve the sustainability and economic viability of PHA production is emphasized, positioning PHAs as a viable and eco-friendly alternative to conventional petroleum-based plastics.

Recycling Production and Consumption Waste for Bioenergy Purposes: Status and Prospects

An analysis of the structure of forest and agro-industrial waste, solid municipal waste in the federal districts and Russia as a whole is presented. The volume and composition of waste is determined by the economic activity and specific characteristics of federal districts. It was noted that pelletizing is an effective technology for the disposal of many types of waste, but the great heterogeneity of feedstock and granulation methods prevent the production of high-quality pellets. The fuel component of pellet in the cost of thermal energy was evaluated, whichshowed that the most efficient in use – wood pellets, least efficient – pellets from solid municipal waste.

Bacterial Cellulose: A Multifunctional Platform for Biomedical Applications

Bacterial cellulose (BC), a biopolymer synthesized by various bacterial species, has emerged as a promising material for biomedical applications due to its unique properties, including high purity, biocompatibility, mechanical strength, and structural similarity to the extracellular matrix. This review explores the advancements in BC research over the last decade, focusing on its applications in tissue engineering, wound healing, and drug delivery systems. While BC offers numerous benefits, challenges such as large-scale production, structural modification, however regulatory approval hinder its broader clinical use. Recent studies have introduced innovative solutions, such as using agro-industrial waste to lower production costs and combining BC with other materials to enhance its bioactivity. As research progresses, BC has the potential to revolutionize the field of biomedicine, offering sustainable, versatile, and effective solutions for a wide range of medical applications.