Agricultural Water Reuse Research Articles

Agricultural utilization of treated sewage effluent: Experience from Brazil

Prospects for wastewater irrigation in Brazil look promising, in light of the fact that agriculture plays an essential role in the country's economy and, furthermore, freshwater for irrigation is scarce in some parts of the country. However, irrigation with effluents still represents a new practice, and most available data related to the benefits and risks of effluent irrigation are based on short-term experiments. The present paper provides an overview of the potential of water reuse in Brazil; it describes the main results concerning effects of effluent irrigation on soil/plant interactions in Brazil, and discusses some important issues that require further investigation. So far, research in Brazil has been mainly focused on soil chemical changes that follow effluent application, while investigations concerning the occurrence and fate of trace contaminants, and the potential risks they present, remain to be carried out. Such contaminants include heavy metals and pharmaceutically active products. Effluent irrigation of agricultural crops intended for biofuel production represents a strategic issue, of increasing importance for the national and international market. For a consistent evaluation of long-term benefits and risks of effluent irrigation in this country, major needs are: improvement of the sewage collection and treatment infrastructure; establishment of legal regulations to control water reuse in agriculture; and permanent monitoring of areas already under wastewater irrigation.

Water reuse for irrigated agriculture in Jordan: challenges of soil sustainability and the role of management strategies

Reclaimed water provides an important contribution to the water balance in water-scarce Jordan, but the quality of this water presents both benefits and challenges. Careful management of reclaimed water is required to maximize the nutrient benefits while minimizing the salinity risks. This work uses a multi-disciplinary research approach to show that soil response to irrigation with reclaimed water is a function of the management strategies adopted on the farm by the water user. The adoption of management methods to maintain soil productivity can be seen to be a result of farmers' awareness to potentially plant-toxic ions in the irrigation water (70% of Jordan Valley farmers identified salinization as a hazard from irrigation with reclaimed water). However, the work also suggests that farmers' management capacity is affected by the institutional management of water. About a third (35%) of farmers in the Jordan Valley claimed that their ability to manage salinization was limited by water shortages. Organizational interviews revealed that institutional awareness of soil management challenges was quite high (34% of interviewees described salinization as a risk from water reuse), but strategies to address this challenge at the institutional level require greater development.

Erratum to: Safe application of reclaimed water reuse for agriculture in Korea

Erratum to: Paddy Water Environ (2010) 8:227–233DOI 10.1007/s10333-010-0203-9Due to an unfortunate turn of events this article has beenpublished with an erroneous version of one of the authorsnames and more specific the name of Dr Han-Pil Rhee.Please find below the correct author names listed thatshould be regarded by the reader as the final version.Taeil Jang Sae-Bom Lee Choung-Hyun Sung Han-Pil Rhee Seung-Woo Park

Safe application of reclaimed water reuse for agriculture in Korea

This article describes the pilot study on the water reuse for agricultural irrigation in Korea. The project is a part of the application of wastewater reuse system for Agriculture project, a 21st Century Frontier R&D Program sponsored by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology and associated with the Sustainable Water Resources Research Program. The goal of the project was to develop infra-technologies necessary to reclaim wastewater for irrigation in agriculture. The project involved two phases: laboratory and field research. Reclamation techniques for irrigation and feasible reuse were developed as a first step in proposing appropriate water quality standards. Reclaimed wastewater of various qualities was used to irrigate cereal crops and vegetables, and possible adverse effects on crops, humans, and the environment were investigated. The optimal reclamation methods required to satisfy water quality standards were explored and the operational characteristics investigated. Moreover, an inventory of farmlands that could reuse reclaimed wastewater was established. Feasible delivery systems for irrigation were developed, and pilot project sites were identified. Finally, operational field data from pilot units were collected and analyzed. This research and development may help solve water shortage problems in Korea, which left unaddressed will have an adverse effect on future generations.

Feasibility of a daly of no more than 10-4 per person per year for water reuse in agriculture, in developing countries

Feasibility of a daly of no more than 10-4 per person per year for water reuse in agriculture, in developing countries

Setting health based targets for water reuse (in agriculture)

WHO published in 1989 the first Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater and Excreta in Agriculture and Aquaculture that were widely used. Since that time, more experience has been gained and more evidence is produced. The new WHO guidelines on water reuse in agriculture, recently published, provide all the basic information on the health risks, and how to set health based targets, by quantifying the risk and developing pathogen reduction targets. Furthermore, an analysis of the health protection measures is included, making reference to the wastewater treatment, crop restrictions, wastewater application methods and human exposure control.

Helminth ova control in wastewater and sludge for advanced and conventional sanitation

Worldwide, the most important reuse of wastewater, in volume, is agricultural irrigation. Therefore, there is a need to properly treat wastewater for such purpose, considering the removal of pathogens while leaving suitable amounts of nutrients and other compounds to increase productivity. Helminth ova are one of the main targeted pathogens in the new guidelines for water reuse in agriculture and aquaculture issued in 2006 by the World Health Organization. However, relatively little research has been done recently on how to remove and inactivate helminth ova from wastewater and sludge and recommendations given several decades ago are still used, but when put into practice, particularly in developing countries, produce unsatisfactory results. One problem is that these criteria were developed using inaccurate analytical techniques and the other is the large number and variety of helminth ova species found in wastewater and sludge from the developing world. In fact, the few technological options to remove and inactivate helminth ova come from research performed using wastewater and sludge with low helminth ova content, and refer almost only to Ascaris (one type of helminth). This paper summarises recent research work and results from practical experience concerning helminth ova control for advanced and conventional sanitation.

Study of urban population attitudes towards various wastewater reuse options: Israel as a case study

This paper summarizes the findings of a survey (256 participants) conducted to determine the attitude of the Israeli urban public towards various urban water reuse options. Israel is known for its long and successful agricultural water reuse scheme, but to date no large-scale urban reuse projects have been implemented. The survey included 21 reuse options, which were clustered into three reuse categories, namely: low, medium, and high contact levels. Results show that a high proportion of the participants supported medium contact reuse options such as sidewalk landscaping (95%), domestic WC flushing (85%) and firefighting (96%). Higher contact reuse options such as domestic laundry (38%), preserved food (13%), and potable aquifer recharge (11%) found much lesser support. Less than expected support was found for low contact reuse options with 86% for field crop irrigation, 62% for aquifer recharge for agricultural irrigation, and as low as 49% for orchard irrigation. This low support is surprising, since all three options have been practiced on a large scale for over three decades in Israel without any adverse effects to the public. No correlation was found between any biographical characteristic examined (education, gender, income, marital status, having young children, and age) and support for medium contact options. For the medium contact options, the results suggest that perceived financial gain (individual and/or communal) and positive public opinion enhances support, while perceived health effects negatively affects the degree of support. Technology, trust in authorities and awareness of water and environmental issues were found to not have a significant effect on support for medium contact reuse options. Analyzing the four possible reasons for support given by participants who identified themselves as supporters of wastewater reuse revealed that the most important reason for support was “water saving”, followed by “minimization of importing water from abroad”. These were followed by “infrastructure cost saving” together with “environmental improvement”.

A pilot scale electrolytic unit for tertiary treatment of industrial effluents

Over the past few years, academic research has focused on the development of new treatment technologies for municipal and industrial wastewater that will be suitable for reuse. In this study, an electrolytic pilot scale unit has been manufactured for the tertiary treatment of biologically processed wastewater aiming at its reuse for groundwater recharge or for agricultural purposes. The integrated pilot unit consists of two compartments, the electrolytic cell (reactor) and the unit of flotation and precipitation of the coagulated colloid particles. The anode of the cell is a DSA type electrode with iridium and platinum oxide mixture deposited on a titanium substrate; Stainless Steel 316 is used for the cathode. The adjacent container unit has collectors (scrapers) for the flocculated and precipitated particles. The unit has been operating at the Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) of the Herakleion Industrial Park (Crete, Greece). The first results obtained from the operation of the unit for the tertiary treatment of industrial wastewater are very encouraging. Complete discolouration and disinfection of the wastewater as well as essentially the complete removal of suspended solids. The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of the tertiary treated effluent is negligible and within the guidelines for agricultural water reuse or aquifer recharge.

Use of wastewater in agriculture: the water chain approach

The agricultural use of (partially) treated or untreated wastewater is increasingly attracting the attention of policy makers, officials and researchers. Agricultural water reuse is a very complex issue comprising a wide range of different elements, such as food production, water quality and water treatment, hydrology, health issues as well as socio-economic issues of the people involved including consumers and overall environmental risks. Behind this physical and biological complexity acts an institutional network, with many stakeholders with different responsibilities, juridical power and diverging political and economic priorities. Considering the rapid urbanisation worldwide, lack of financial means for adequate environmental protection along with the problem of local freshwater scarcity, increasing polluting streams and steeply increasing food requirements in and around urban centres, it is important to come to a jointly agreed approach in tackling this problem. It is suggested to study and design the agricultural use of treated wastewater as part of a water chain approach, which allows linking the different issues, the domain of different disciplines, in a logical and stepwise framework. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. L'utilisation des eaux usées traitées (partiellement) ou non traitées dans l'agriculture attire de plus en plus l'attention des politiciens, des représentants administratifs et des chercheurs. La réutilisation des eaux agricoles est un problème très complexe qui englobe un large nombre d'éléments, tels que les activités des industries agro-alimentaires, la qualité et le traitement de l'eau, l'hydrologie et les problèmes de santé ainsi que les problèmes socio-économiques des personnes interessées y compris les consommateurs, et les risques environnementaux en général. Derrière cette complexité physique et biologique agit un réseau institutionnel, comprenant plusieurs parties ayant chacune des responsabilités différentes, le pouvoir judiciaire, ainsi que des priorités politiques et économiques divergentes. Au regard de l'urbanisation rapide mondiale, un manque de moyens financiers pour une protection environnementale appropriée associé au problème de la pénurie d'eau potable, qui contribue à l'intensification des problèmes de courants polluants, et le manque de nourriture qui augmente de façon phénoménale dans et autour des centres urbains, il est important de convenir de façon commune d'une méthode pour traiter ces problèmes. On a suggéré d'étudier et d'élaborer l'utilisation agricole des eaux usées traitées, comme partie intégrante de la méthode de la chaîne de l'eau, qui permet de combiner les différents problèmes, les domaines des différents disciplines, le tout dans un cadre logique et de façon progressive. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Water strategies and potential of water reuse in the south Mediterranean countries

Water in the South Mediterranean countries of the Arab region is inherently scarce as a result of naturally and or semi-arid conditions. The population growth and economic development in the region have increased the demand for water which is expected to be doubled in the next 25 years. The increased use of the fixed water resource in response to rising demands is not only reducing water availability, but also jeopardizing water quality. In view of the vital importance of water for sustaining life and promoting development, appropriate technological solutions are considered to augment water resources through non-conventional sources. Reuse of treated wastewater would have greater impact on future usable sources of water than any of the technological solutions available for increasing water supply. Water reuse in agriculture is justified on agronomic and economic grounds, but care must be taken to minimize adverse health and environmental impacts. It will result in savings of fresh water and augmentation of water supply required for irrigation to overcome the shortage in food sufficiency. However, appropriate technologies of wastewater treatment and irrigation systems will have to be developed and tested in order to promote wide use of treated wastewater in irrigation within the Arab region.

Water strategies and potential of water reuse in the south Mediterranean countries

Water in the South Mediterranean countries of the Arab region is inherently scarce as a result of naturally and or semi-arid conditions. The population growth and economic development in the region have increased the demand for water which is expected to be doubled in the next 25 years. The increased use of the fixed water resource in response to rising demands is not only reducing water availability, but also jeopardizing water quality. In view of the vital importance of water for sustaining life and promoting development, appropriate technological solutions are considered to augment water resources through non-conventional sources. Reuse of treated wastewater would have greater impact on future usable sources of water than any of the technological solutions available for increasing water supply. Water reuse in agriculture is justified on agronomic and economic grounds, but care must be taken to minimize adverse health and environmental impacts. It will result in savings of fresh water and augmentation of water supply required for irrigation to overcome the shortage in food sufficiency. However, appropriate technologies of wastewater treatment and irrigation systems will have to be developed and tested in order to promote wide use of treated wastewater in irrigation within the Arab region.

The Al-Bireh demonstration project on agricultural reuse of wastewater in the West Bank

High crop yields and relatively uncontaminated eggplants were some of the results when treated wastewater was used to irrigate tree and vegetable crops. The Al-Bireh demonstration project in Palestine was also important for bringing together institutions that will continue to drive water reuse in agriculture in future.

Heavy Metals Content of Municipal Wastewater and Sludges in Kuwait

Municipal wastewater may contain heavy metals, which are hazardous to the environment and humans. With stringent regulations concerning water reuse and sludge utilization in agriculture, there is a great need to determine levels of heavy metals in liquid wastes, sludges and agricultural crops. The state of Kuwait has programs to utilize waste sludge produced at wastewater treatment plants as soil conditioner and fertilizer for greenery and agricultural development projects and to reuse treated wastewater effluents in irrigation. The common metals found in Kuwait's raw wastewater and sludge are Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn. The effects of accumulation of heavy metals in soil are long lasting and even permanent. In this study, the variations in the concentration levels of heavy metals were measured in wastewater and sludge produced at Ardiya municipal wastewater treatment plant in Kuwait. A relationship was observed between the concentrations of heavy metals in treated wastewater and sludge used for agriculture and the level of accumulated heavy metals found in residual tissues of some crops.

Pilot study of SBR biological treatment and microfiltration for reclamation and reuse of municipal wastewater

In Israel the shortage of water and concern for the quality of groundwater resources have led to an awareness that a national wastewater reclamation program must be developed. Such a program could cover a major part of the agricultural water demand and could facilitate disposal of effluents without health hazards or environmental problems. A two-stage pilot-scale system comprising secondary sequencing batch reactor (SBR) treatment and tertiary microfiltration was operated for the treatment of Beer-Sheva municipal wastewater. The self-cleaning, continuous microfiltration system comprised a filter module made up of hollow fiber microporous membranes, with a pore size distribution of less than 0.1 μm, encapsulated into a bundle. The unit, which has a nominal filtration area of 4 m2, can treat 4–5 m3 of sewage per day, at a nominal rate of about 500 L/h. SBR treatment of the raw sewage produced an effluent with a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of <20 mg/L and total suspended solids (TSS) of <20 mg/L. Further treatment by microfiltration resulted in a BOD <5 mg/L, TSS <1 mg/L and turbidity <0.2 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). Bacterial counts showed 6-log removal of coliforms and fecal coliforms. These results indicate that the two-stage scheme is capable of producing an effluent that meets or even surpasses the requirements for unrestricted water reuse for agriculture.

Variation and Trends in Agricultural Drainage Water Reuse in Egypt

ABSTRACT A substantial quantity of agricultural drainage water flows annually from the Nile Delta to the Mediterranean Sea and North Lakes. The volume and salinity of this water vary both with time and space. Policies for developing water resources in Egypt and maximizing its use include the reuse of agricultural drainage water for irrigation. This implies that water of lower quality than the Nile water will be used in irrigation. The reuse of this water as a reliable resource is limited by its quality, which in turn determines the quantity that can be used. During the past decade Egypt started an ambitious program towards the goal of achieving higher water use efficiency to face the increasing water demands. The future improvement of the irrigation system, the better allocation of available water resources and the efficient utilization of irrigation water will affect the quantity and quality of agricultural drainage water: The start of this program was associated with a sharp decrease in the natural flow of the River Nile. The prevailing operational and management conditions had decreased the irrigation and drainage discharges and increased the salinity of drainage water In this paper the historical discharge and salinity data about the drainage water in the Nile Delta will be analyzed to determine the trends and tendencies of their changes. The effect of management of Nile water releases from the High Aswan Dam on drainage water quantities and qualities is discussed. This study is carried out on a regional scale, covering the east, the middle and the west parts of the Delta.