Agricultural Waste Products Research Articles

Utilization of Agricultural Waste Through Conventional Technologies for the Treatment of Industrial Effluents: A Review

Agricultural waste products are commonly distributed and they are inexpensive and biodegradable. This review focuses on various agro wastes used in the treatment of industrial wastewater. As heavy metals are considered as a global threat affecting biological lives, ways to remove them from waste water are challenging. Various conventional methods are used in recent times for the removal of heavy metals from industrial waste water. Agricultural waste is a good resource for the adsorption of the dyes generated during industrial processing. The adsorption process serves as an alternative method to treat wastewater. The study provides the steps followed in various industries and explains the steps in which the toxic heavy metals find their way to the environment. This review focuses on the comprehensive ways of utilization agro wastes as good treatment material which are also eco-friendly. The review suggests how agro wastes form a potential, effective, affordable and sustainable sorbent biomaterial for minimizing environmental pollution. Agricultural waste products are commonly distributed and they are inexpensive and biodegradable. This review focuses on various agro wastes used in the treatment of industrial wastewater. As heavy metals are considered as a global threat affecting biological lives, ways to remove them from waste water are challenging. Various conventional methods are used in recent times for the removal of heavy metals from industrial waste water. Agricultural waste is a good resource for the adsorption of the dyes generated during industrial processing. The adsorption process serves as an alternative method to treat wastewater. The study provides the steps followed in various industries and explains the steps in which the toxic heavy metals find their way to the environment. This review focuses on the comprehensive ways of utilization agro wastes as good treatment material which are also eco-friendly. The review suggests how agro wastes form a potential, effective, affordable and sustainable sorbent biomaterial for minimizing environmental pollution.

Optimization of the use of local feed ingredients from agricultural waste against the weight of broiler chicken carcasses

Feed is made from a mixture of ingredients that contain nutrients needed by livestock, these feed ingredients are the result of agricultural production and agricultural production waste. This study aims to determine the body weight of broiler chickens with feed derived from agricultural waste in Merauke Regency. This study used a randomized group design with 3 treatments and 3 repeats (A1: mash feed, A2: pellet feed without adhesive, A3: Pellet feed using adhesive). The results of research using feed ingredients derived from agricultural waste in Merauke Regency showed that the highest broiler carcass weight was obtained in the pellet feed treatment using adhesive with a value of 992 gr, then at the A2 treatment (Pellets without adhesive) of 962.67 gr, and finally the carcass weight was obtained at the A1 (Mash) treatment, amounting to 932 gr, the maintenance time for 35 days. This shows that Merauke Regency’s agricultural waste can be used as feed ingredients.

A novel approach for recycling agricultural wastes in the synthesis of nanomaterials and their composites

In this study, main focus has been drawn on the utilization of agricultural waste sources to synthesize nanomaterials. Graphene oxide and nanocellulose were prepared using rice husk ash and sugarcane bagasse, respectively. Further, their nanocomposites were also prepared in (1:1) ratio of graphene oxide and nanocellulose. The synthesized nanomaterials from agricultural waste were compared with those prepared from conventional sources through varied characterizations. Scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and N2 adsorption-desorption analysis was performed to examine the structural, functional and surface properties of the prepared nanomaterials from different precursors. High resolution imaging revealed better structural characteristics of the nanomaterials fabricated from agri-waste precursors. SEM images showed well exfoliated structure of GO and porous nature of NC. The folded layers of GO represent the presence of hydroxyl groups in the TEM images of GO @ graphite powder. TEM images of nanocellulose showed circular shaped nanoparticles of NC @ cellulose powder. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the presence of all the essential functional groups in the structure of prepared nanomaterials. The nanocomposites prepared using agricultural waste sources and conventional sources were inspected by N2 adsorption-desorption analysis, which demonstrated that the nanocomposites prepared from agri-waste sources exhibits much higher specific surface area than that of prepared from conventional precursors. R2 possess specific surface area of 82.832 m2 g−1 while, R1 possess only 6.721 m2 g−1. N2 adsorption-desorption analysis revealed the pore volume, pore diameter, micropore volume, micropore area and surface area of the prepared nanocomposites. The nanomaterials prepared using agricultural waste products shows desirable characteristics in all aspects which makes them equally applicable in energy storage devices, food packaging, drug delivery systems, nanosensors and water filtration systems.

Potential Applications of Alpha Nanocellulose from Cow Dung in Biomedicine: A Comprehensive Review

It is feasible to extract nanocellulose, in particular alpha nanocellulose, from agricultural waste products such as cow dung. This is the case. Nanocellulose of this particular form exhibits unique properties, making it an excellent candidate for biological applications. This review aims to discuss the biomedical applications of cow dung-derived alpha nanocellulose. Nanocellulose has a larger surface area, greater mechanical strength, and better biocompatibility than other cellulose nanomaterials. It starts off by walking through the process of removing nanocellulose from cow manure. Alpha nanocellulose has applications in tissue engineering, the administration of medicines, the healing of wounds, as well as biosensing. Each application is broken down into its component parts, providing insights into the underlying mechanisms, experimental investigations, as well as in-vitro and in-vivo evaluations to establish the viability and effectiveness of alpha nanocellulose. The review paper also discusses the difficulties encountered and the potential future applications of alpha nanocellulose derived from cow dung in biomedicine. These difficulties include the requirement for standardized extraction processes, the optimization of material properties, and the consideration of regulatory issues. This in-depth study demonstrates that alpha nanocellulose that is generated from cow dung is a versatile and environmentally friendly nanomaterial that can be used for medical applications. It is hoped that the findings of this study will inspire more research and creative applications based on the unique properties of alpha nanocellulose, possibly resulting in biomedical breakthroughs by consolidating knowledge and exploring new areas.

Quality Test of Corn Flour from Pulut Corn Cob Waste ( Zea mays ceratina. L) by Fermentation

Pulut type corn or waxy corn has been developed in several areas in South Sulawesi. From year to year, the productivity of corn pulut has increased, this also shows that agricultural waste production has also increased. The agricultural waste produced by corn cobs. The purpose of this study was to determine the processing of corncob waste into cornflour and to determine the characterization of the quality of cornflour, especially microbial contamination based on SNI standards. Methods: water content using a gravimetric method, ash content using a gravimetric method, microbial contamination test using ALT method of 25-250 colonies/gram counted, and analysis of mold and E. coli bacteria. The results showed that the ash content was 0.0766%, 17.49 % moisture content, 17.49% protein content, ALT 1.9 x 106, mold analysis of 10,4 x 102 colonies/gram, and analysis of E. coli bacteria amounting to 8,1 APM / g and Bacillus cereus with a resistance value of <1.0 x 102coloni/g (negative value) indicates that it does not meet the SNI standard.

Synthesis and Characterization of Mesoporous Nanosilica Derived from Rice Husk Ash

Synthesis and Characterization of Mesoporous Nanosilica Derived from Rice Husk Ash

Remediation of boron, lithium, and molybdenum by date pits modified with graphene oxide and cellulose nanocrystals: Mechanistic studies

This work aimed to modify date pits (DP), an agricultural waste product, with graphene oxide (GO) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) to develop a novel, environmentally friendly adsorbent referred to as GO-CNC@DP. A comprehensive study of the physicochemical characteristics of the prepared adsorbent in addition to the batch adsorption investigation on multiple pollutants (boron, lithium, and molybdenum) was studied. The results concluded that the endothermicity of the process due to the positive value of enthalpy change ΔH° that favors low levels of disorder and is spontaneous in nature due to the negative ΔG° values. At pH 2, the maximum adsorption capacities ranged between 15.5 mg/g and 82 mg/g for the three studied pollutants. The increase in adsorption capacity can be attributed to the alteration of the initial temperature from 25 °C to 45 °C. This phenomenon can be elucidated by considering the interactions such as surface complexation, electrostatic attraction, and ion exchange that occur between the pollutant and the adsorbent's surface. The excellent adsorption of boron, lithium, and molybdenum can be attributed to the attachment of GO to CNC on DP, which not only added more adsorption sites but also partially inhibited the aggregation of CNC. Therefore, GO-CNC@DP exhibited great results in the remediation of boron, lithium, and molybdenum from water in comparison to DP.

Retracted: A study on the strength and durability characteristics of fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete modified with supplementary cementitious material

Recycled aggregate (RA) made from waste concrete is an environmentally friendly alternative to natural aggregate (NA) for concrete manufacturing. However, compared to NA concrete, concrete produced with recycled aggregates has poor characteristics. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) can be used to enhance the poor properties of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). Silica fume and fly ash are commonly used SCMs in the World, but their high usage led to a shortage of silica fume and fly ash. Still, the deficiency of these materials in large parts of the world is a challenge that requires exploring alternative feedstock materials for the construction industry in the coming years. Wheat straw ash (WSA) is an agricultural waste product that could be used as an alternative SCM due to its pozzolanic behavior to enhance the properties of RAC. In addition, concrete is brittle and needs reinforcement, for which polypropylene fibers (PPFs) can be used. The current research examines the mechanical characteristics of fiber-reinforced RAC, including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and ductility performance. Durability indicators, such as chloride diffusion, chloride penetration, acid resistance, and water absorption test, were also assessed. The results showed that concrete samples with 10% WSA, 50% RA and 1.5% PPFs had the highest compressive and splitting tensile strength, 60.2 MPa and 7.25 MPa, respectively, representing increases of 24.75% and 30.65%, as compared to plain samples at 56 days. In these samples, water absorption was reduced by 13% due to the finer WSA particles resulting in the lowest reduction in strength and mass recorded when exposing concrete samples to acidic media. The statistical analysis also validated that irrespective of WSA and PPFs, the concrete with 0% RA had the highest performance in strength and durability behavior. The study showed that WSA and PPFs might be employed in tandem to offset the poor behavior of RA, enhance the bond between fibers and concrete, and improve the mechanical strength and durability performance of RAC, thus demonstrating its suitability as a sustainable and economical construction material.

Utilization of Burkholderia sp. ISTR5 for enhanced saccharification and fermentation of agricultural waste for production and upgradation of biogas by calcite-based bio-composite materials

Utilization of agricultural feedstocks like Sugarcane bagasse, Mustard Husk and Rice plus tobacco Husk by Burkholderia sp. ISTR5 was evaluated under submerged culture conditions. Percent loss of feedstocks, total soluble sugar, saccharification efficiency, bacterial count and FTIR were major factors that indicated sugarcane bagasse to be the best feedstock for the production of Bio-methane as compared to other used feedstocks in the experiment. Further, biogas produced by fermentation process of sugarcane bagasse hydrolysate and fermentation was upgraded with the help of fabricated bio-mineralized product of CO2 sequestrating bacterium, Serratia sp., and biochar. The synthesis of calcite-based bio-composite materials was confirmed by FTIR, FESEM, XRD, EDX. The results indicated the usage of Bagasse was more efficient than other two feedstocks and also the usage of calcite-based bio-composite helped in the upgradation of biogas by removal of CO2 and other contaminants. The results indicated possible applications for in-situ biomethanation and clean energy.

An overview on non-wood fiber characteristics for paper production: Sustainable management approach

The amount of paper and paperboard a country uses are a reliable barometer of its development. Having access to them is essential to our daily life. The Indian paper industry faces a number of challenges, one of which is a scarcity of high-quality raw materials. Agricultural waste products have become essential alternative sources of supply as a result of an increase in the need for fibrous raw materials, a global lack of trees, and a growing awareness of sustainability. When compared to the manufacturing of pulp and paper from wood sources, the use of non-wood sources (including bagasse, maize stalks, cotton stalks and rice straws) offers a number of advantages. These benefits include superior quality of the bleached pulp and excellent sources for specialty papers. Paper manufacture is more ecologically friendly and sustainable when non-wood fibers are processed since non-wood pulping technologies use less energy than wood-based pulping processes. Furthermore, the financial advantages include cost savings, market differentiation, enhanced sustainability, and access to government subsidies. By investing in non-wood fibers to satisfy rising customer demand for environmentally friendly goods, paper manufacturers may position themselves for long-term prosperity and environmental responsibility. The non-wood fibers are cellular and have a complex cell wall structure. A thorough understanding of their properties is essential for effective use. Therefore, the objective of the present review is to explore the wide variation between critical characteristics (morphological, chemical, and mechanical) and the most appropriate pulping and bleaching processes for commonly used agricultural residues (Rice straw, Bagasse, Wheat straw and Bamboo) in the Indian pulp and paper industry for the production of paper, board, and packaging.

A Simple Ceramic Water Filter for Water Purification in the Rural Area

Most rural dwellers in Nigeria are living in areas where tap water are not available and they depend mainly on ponds and streams water for drinking which in most cases the water have been contaminated with pathogens, guinea-worm and agricultural waste products. This study was conducted to develop simple ceramic filters for purification of water. Two ceramic water filters were produced using kaolinite-clay and sawdust. Percentage compositions of sawdust to kaolinite-clay for the ceramic water filters by volume were 40%-60% (F1) and 50%-50% (F2). The Sawdust (from hardwood) and kaolinite-clay were ground and sieved through 0.075 mm sieve. The kaolinite-clay and sawdust were thoroughly mixed, soaked in water for 24 hours, mixed again and heated inside a furnace at 900-950°C for 8 hours. Each filter has 220mm diameter at the top, 180mm diameter at the bottom, 240mm in height and 20 in thickness. Water samples were collected after filtration and analyzed. The flow rate of F1 and F2 were 77 mL/h and 108 mL/h, respectively. Total coliform of raw water was 2.08 cfu/ml but total coliform was not detected after filtration through the two filters. The filters reduced water hardness, turbidity, Calcium, Chloride, Iron, Magnesium and Zinc from the water.

Production of first and second-generation biodiesel for diesel engine operation: A review

Researchers are looking at alternative cleaner technologies to fulfill the rising need for greener fuels. For this reason, alternatives like bioethanol and biodiesel have become commercially available. Renewable fuels are classified as either "first generation," "second generation," or "third generation" depending on the feedstock used in their manufacture. Over the past decade, society's reliance on first-generation biofuel feedstocks has created an inbuilt rivalry between food and fuel. Second-generation biofuel feed-stocks, such as non-edible agricultural waste products, energy crops, and crop residues, have been illuminated by emerging technical prospects. Technologies for producing biofuels have been proposed and developed in multiple stages, with first-generation technologies being the most developed. In several nations, including the United States, corn grain is used as feedstock in bio-refineries. There is a risk that food and fuel prices will rise as a result of the usage of edible materials in crops like corn. Second-generation biofuel manufacturing technology that utilizes crop residues has been developed to deal with this kind of problem. This study investigates and evaluates the economic viability and environmental sustainability of the proposed solution for the production of second-generation biodiesel.

Development of corn husk cellulose reinforced polyvinyl alcohol bio-composite films incorporated with Zinc Oxide nanoparticles

This study reports the fabrication of ZnO nanoparticles infused antimicrobial film based on PVA and corn husk cellulose via film casting method. To induce plasticizing effect between cellulose and PVA matrix, Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) was used. The effect of cellulose, PEG, and ZnO-NP on the mechanical characteristics was evaluated. The result shows that the film containing 20 % cellulose exhibits improved tensile strength in comparison to neat PVA film as well as other combinations, which is ascribed to the strong hydrogen bonds developed between polyvinyl alcohol and cellulose. The study successfully extracted cellulose from corn husk via alkaline treatment and bleaching. The study also demonstrated that increasing ZnO nanoparticle concentration significantly enhances antimicrobial activity in CPZ films. This research showcases for the first time the mechanical and antibacterial capabilities of cellulose derived from corn husk, a sustainable agricultural waste product, when used to reinforce PVA films.

Uncovering the potentials of long-term straw return and nitrogen supply on subtropical maize (Zea mays L.) photosynthesis and grain yield

ContextCrop straw is a significant byproduct of agricultural production and a rich source of nutrients, but it is carelessly disposed of, potentially harming the environment and wasting valuable resources. In China, returning straw to the soil as a means of disposing of agricultural waste is a crucial management technique that not only makes use of agricultural waste but also enhances soil quality and grain yield. ObjectiveA five-year (2018–2022) field experiment was designed to study the effect of straw treatment methods and optimal nitrogen (N) application rate on the photosynthesis process and grain yield of maize. MethodsThe different straw methods (straw return (SR) and traditional practice (TP) — no straw return) were assigned to main plots while the N levels such as N100 (100 kg ha−1), N150 (150 kg ha−1), N200 (200 kg ha−1), N250 (250 kg ha−1), and N300 (300 kg ha−1) were allotted to sub-plots. ResultsThe results showed the photosynthesis rate (Pn), intercellular carbon dioxide concentration, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, relative chlorophyll content (SPAD), leaf area index (LAI), dry matter (DM), soil nitrogen content, maize grain nitrogen accumulation, and grain yield were increased with an increase in N levels. Similarly, SR also showed a promotion effect on the aforementioned parameters compared with TP. After five years, SR with an optimum N level (250 kg ha−1) increased the SPAD values (2%) and Pn (8%) which resulted in higher LAI (27%) compared with TPN300. As a result, more DM (15%) was formed and finally increased the grain yield (7%). It was revealed that the SPAD, Pn, LAI, DM, and grain yield were maximum at a higher 300 kg N ha−1 level but it was found statistically similar with 250 kg N ha−1. So in this study, SR with 250 kg N ha−1 is optimum for better photosynthetic efficiency, dry matter production, and grain yield. The correlation analysis also showed a positive correlation (i) of SPAD values with Pn (ii) LAI with SPAD values and Pn, (iii) DM with SPAD values, Pn, and LAI, and (iv) grain yield with DM under SR compared with TP. Conclusion and implicationIn summary, SRN250 resulted in better chlorophyll content and photosynthesis process that yielded more photosynthetic area for higher DM production and subsequently higher maize grain yield. The SR reduced the amount of N fertilizer and improved the grain yield and it is the best approach to improve grain yield and minimize agricultural waste production. Long-term trials are needed to understand the effects of straw incorporation and nitrogen application in different regions and locations.

A waste material rich in bioactive compounds: Hazelnut waste

Nowadays, increasing sensitivity to the environment leads to the development of sustainable agricultural policies. In this respect, it has become important to transform agricultural waste products into value-added products. Hazelnut, which has a significant trade volume worldwide, is processed into products, and some waste materials can be emerge. These waste products could transform into high added-value to food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries due to possessing the bioactive compounds such as phenolics and, dietary fibre in them. This review represents the research on the bioactive compounds from the hazelnut waste, especially conducted in recently, and concentrates on its tree leaf, husk, and oil meal.

Capturing water vapors from humid air using microporous activated carbon derived from sunflower seed shells

Water extraction from the atmosphere using solid desiccants is becoming an increasingly viable option for human consumption. Using sustainable raw materials is imperative to reduce the carbon footprint in the mass production of such desiccants. In this paper, we synthesized microporous activated carbon from sunflower seed shells (SSS-AC) to capture water vapors from humid or moist air. Sunflower seed shells (SSS) are an agricultural waste product that makes the final product a sustainable and environment-friendly alternative to traditional solid desiccants. Chemical activation was carried out using KOH as the activating agent, and the ratio of activating agent to carbon was 2:1. Different structural and morphological properties of synthesized microporous activated carbon (SSS-AC) were studied using FTIR, XRD, SEM, EDAX, and TGA characterization techniques. The surface area and pore distribution were characterized using N2 adsorption/desorption studies, where a steep initial uptake with a wide capillary condensation step was observed for SSS-AC. The pore distribution of SSS-AC showed high pore volume in the microporous range. The pHpzc value for the SSS-AC was measured to be 10.24 while the HI value was found to be 6.26, indicating an alkaline and hydrophobic surface. Water adsorption studies were carried out at 25, 35, and 45 °C, and the material was found to exhibit type-V isotherm, which is common for microporous activated carbons and indicates the likely occurrence of pore condensation. The SSS-AC reported a maximum adsorption capacity of 0.454 gwat/gads at 90% relative humidity and 25 °C, which is higher than some complex desiccants reported in the literature. The adsorption capacity of SSS-AC decreased with increasing temperature since, at higher temperatures, the pore-filling mechanism is hindered.

Socio-economic and environmental aspects of bio-LPG and bio-dimethyl ether (Bio-DME) production and usage in developing countries: The case of Brazil

The production of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) from biomass, biogas or waste to produce so-called bio-LPG has the potential to be more sustainable with a lower carbon footprint than fossil fuel LPG. In Brazil 13.6 million m3 of LPG are consumed and 80% of this is consumed in the residential sector. Therefore, there is an opportunity to displace LPG and firewood with bio-LPG. The aim of this research is to investigate the socio-economic viability and environmental aspects of bio-LPG and dimethyl ether (bio-DME) production from waste in developing countries. Using Brazil as a case study, data on LPG demand and supply, as well as the cost of production has been collected in order to determine the size of the potential market for bio-LPG nationally. A review of scientific literature on bio-LPG and DME production is conducted in order to map the market potential of these new technologies. The availability of waste feedstocks for second-generation biofuels will be estimated as well as the potential yield of bio-LPG and bio-DME from different agricultural residues and waste products. Besides the commercialised process of hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) to produce biodiesel and bio-LPG, it is expected that the process of converting organic wastes (such as cellulose) into biogas and synthesizing LPG, as well the production of bio-DME from biomass waste have the greatest potentials.

Impact of Using Date Juice as a Carbon Source on Curdlan Produced by a Local Isolate of Agrobacterium leguminum

Agrobacterium species are responsible for the production of the polysaccharide known as curdlan. The curdlan was produced from 10 isolates that were collected from a variety of local sources, including as agricultural soils, root nodules, and plant roots. The isolates were identified by examinations using morphological, microscopic, and biochemical tests. After testing the isolates to see which ones could produce the most curdlan, the A2 isolate finally emerged with a production capacity of 29.2 g.L-1. According to the findings, the production of curdlan was increased using the modified medium that contained date juice at a concentration of 26.4 mL.100 mL-1 of the production medium. The resultant yield was 30.7 g.L-1, which was the highest possible yield. The identification of curdlan was validated by the utilization of FTIR, NMR, and HPLC techniques. The modified medium had the capability of being utilized in the production of curdlan from agricultural waste products.

An environmental sustainability roadmap for partially substituting agricultural waste for sand in cement blocks

Agricultural waste can be used in cement block production for a number of reasons, including its environmental, economic, and labor benefits. This study examines the mechanical, durability, and cost-effectiveness characteristics of cement blocks. A cement block made from agriculture waste promotes sustainable construction practices, since waste agriculture is often dumped in landfills and regarded as a waste material. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced by the construction sector, either from the firing of clay bricks or from the production of cement, contribute significantly to global warming. In many developing countries, air pollution from agricultural activities is primarily accounted for the emissions from agricultural machinery and openly burning agro-waste. Farming is one of the leading causes of water and soil pollution. Hence, adopting agricultural waste into cement production would significantly reduce the environmental impact of concrete structures. The goal of this research is to determine whether agricultural waste products, such as vermiculite, pistachio shells, sugarcane bagasse, and coconut husks, can be used to substitute sand in concrete blocks. The water absorption capacity of waste materials, density, flexural strength, fire resistance, and compressive strength of waste materials as admixtures in concrete were evaluated using experimental tests. In most cases, the concrete blocks made from agricultural waste were strong enough to satisfy ASTM standards. The specimens containing coconut husks and pistachio shells, among others, were found to be fairly strong and durable, even when isolating them from water.

Counselling on the utilization of agricultural waste as alternative feed for poultry

Poultry concentrate feed is predominantly produced by animal feed factories in Indonesia. Unfortunately, the selling price of concentrates has been steadily increasing, causing difficulties for poultry farmers in maintaining their businesses. Indonesia, being an agricultural country, possesses a wealth of agricultural products. The abundance of agricultural products, coupled with significant amounts of agricultural waste from by-products, can be processed and utilized as animal feed. In order to address this issue, a service activity was conducted in Suru Village, Doko District, Blitar Regency. The objective was to provide socialization and training on utilizing agricultural waste, which is abundant in Suru Village, as an alternative feed for poultry livestock. The approach employed involved socializing the activities to farmers, addressing the challenges faced by partners, and providing counseling and direct assistance. The counseling sessions focused on the types of agricultural waste readily available in Suru Village that can be utilized in poultry feed, as well as training on formulating simple rations. As a result of this activity, breeders were able to utilize rice bran, an agricultural waste product, as an alternative feed, thereby reducing the cost of expensive commercial feeds. By substituting rice bran in feed formulations for commercial concentrates, farmers were able to save Rp410,000 per 100 kg of purchased feed.