Agricultural Terraces Research Articles

Identification and Delineation of Broad-Base Agricultural Terraces in Flat Landscapes in Northeastern Oklahoma, USA

Broad-base agricultural terraces can be difficult to delineate in flat landscapes, particularly when covered by crops, due to subtle changes in elevation over relatively wide distances. In northeastern Oklahoma, these terraces are usually less than half a meter high and 15 to 20 m wide. The objective of this research was to develop and test a technique for identifying and classifying terraces using computer vision applied to terrain derivatives calculated from digital elevation models at five sites. We tested 38 terrain-derivative grid combinations or sets that represented 19 terrain characteristics, calculated from elevation models after two Gaussian smoothing strategies to provide some degree of generalization and a removal of excess noise. The best subsets achieved a 98% classification accuracy (kappa 0.96) and consisted of derivatives representing hydrology, morphometry, and visibility categories. Inaccuracies occurred primarily at the edges of some of the study sites, where agricultural fields bordered incised drainage areas where changes in elevation were similar to those for the terraces. Further study will elucidate the relationships between terrace “borrow” and “deposition” areas in the terrace areas and their relationships to yield and salinity issues. This work seeks to automate terrace identification for digital soil mapping on terraced fields for the improved delivery of soil information for resource conservation and land use.

Agroforestry Adoption Decision in Green Growth Initiative Programs: Key Lessons from the Billion Trees Afforestation Project (BTAP)

Adoption of agroforestry in the early spring under the green growth initiative programs, such as the Billion Trees Afforestation Project, has positively impacted crop productivity and plantation success in Pakistan. However, the timely adoption decision of agroforestry in the Hindu Kush Himalayan is still low, particularly among smallholders. Using a mixed-method approach, we examine the factors influencing smallholder households and community-level timely agroforestry adoption decisions. Findings show that the early and later decision-makers farmers had agricultural lands on riversides and primarily adopted agroforestry to protect their crops from devastating effects of winds and floods. In contrast, late adoption decision-makers adopted agroforestry for income diversification. Results of our logit model show that several household and community-level factors influence smallholders’ timely adoption of agroforestry. The factors that positively affect the timely adoption of agroforestry include age-related factors, education, and the establishment/existence of functional community-based organizations. In contrast, political conflicts and tenure insecurity negatively affect smallholders’ timely adoption of agroforestry. In-depth interviews with Village Development Committees members revealed that terrace farming, farms on riversides, communities without access to other energy sources, population growth, and low farm acreage ensured the timely adoption of agroforestry. The policy recommendations include strengthening collaborative efforts among community members, especially engaging educated old-aged farmers (elders of traditional communities) to increase adoption rates and land tenure security to ensure timely agroforestry adoption under the newly launched 10-BTAP.

Early to Middle Bronze Age agricultural terraces in north-east England: morphology, dating and cultural implications

Terracing is found widely in the Mediterranean and in other hilly and mountainous regions of the world. Yet while archaeological attention to these ‘mundane’ landscape features has grown, they remain understudied, particularly in Northern Europe. Here, the authors present a multidisciplinary study of terraces in the Breamish Valley, Northumberland. The results date their construction to the Early to Middle Bronze Age, when they were built by cutting back the hillside, stone clearance and wall construction. Environmental evidence points to their use for cereal cultivation. The authors suggest that the construction and use of these terraces formed part of an Early to Middle Bronze Age agricultural intensification, which may have been both demographically and culturally driven.

Evidentiranje suhozidne terasirane krajine v Vipavski dolini

Terraced landscapes are important to the cultural and environmental characteristics of many regions worldwide. Accurate and comprehensive documentation of these landscapes is challenging, especially when inventorying dry-stone walled terraced landscapes and abandoned agricultural terraces. Even inventory methods based on LIDAR and fieldwork do not capture all of the mapped information. To address this challenge, the study proposed the inclusion of additional data sources into the inventory process, specifically aerial photographs from drones and photographs taken with advanced GPS devices. The combination of already-tested methods and other data sources enabled a more comprehensive and accurate inventory process. The improved methodology was tested in three cadastral municipalities of the Vipava Valley (Črniče, Gojače and Vrtovin), where the terraces have predominantly dry-stone risers with different heights. A large percentage of the terraced landscape in the selected cadastral municipalities is abandoned, so the terraced structures are overgrown by vegetation and forest; in Gojače, almost half of the terraced landscape is like this. In some places, the terraced landscape has become almost completely unrecognizable. With an improved inventory methodology, both active and abandoned agricultural terraces can be mapped.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS AT THE MUGINSKY SITE IN 2021

The paper provides the results of the archaeological exploration of the Muginsky site (Akushinsky district of the Republic of Dagestan) and paleobotanical analysis of the obtained material. As a result of the investigations carried out, various archeological materials, mainly ceramic ware, have been uncovered. The finds of a fragment of a stone mace head and a flint knife-shaped blade are of particular interest. In addition, a large number of animal bones, mainly of small cattle, were found. Exploration of the Muginsky site have provided new and important material for the cultural and historical characteristics of the culture of the central part of Mountainous Dagestan and the chronology of the site, allowed us to determine the two-layered nature of the site and date it to the final phase of the Eneolithic (Layer 4) and the Middle Bronze Age (Layer 3). The radiocarbon dating for Layer 3, with calibration (1770 ± 50 BC), attributes it between the 19th–18th centuries BC. Paleobotanical examination of finds from the cultural layer of the Muginsky site has revealed an atypical combination of barley and rye grains. The rye grains found are the earliest evidence of the presence of this cereal in the Eastern Caucasus, which raises the question of the time and ways of dissemination of this cultivated crop from the primary area. This subject requires further research and obtaining more extensive paleobotanical collections from cultural layers and the resource zone around sites. This will expand our understanding of the economic activities of the local population, such as the development of agriculture and the emergence of terraced agriculture.

Land use legacy footprint in Mediterranean forest soils: An infrared spectroscopy approach

Chemical properties of forest soils can strongly influence this compartment vulnerability to climate change effects. Past human activities can play a major role in structuring soil chemical properties. In the Mediterranean region, abandonment of terrace agriculture since 1860 induced the coexistence of forests with different ages. Here, soil chemical signature (SCS) was compared between very recent, recent and ancient forests using Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR) spectroscopy and other chemical properties (total C and N, CaCO3 percentages). Land Use Legacy (LUL) effects were analysed depending on soil depths and on contrasted climate conditions (humid vs subhumid Mediterranean climates). Statistic treatments, Linear Mixed-Effect and Anova COMmon DIMension models, were used to highlight the influence of depth’s soil, climate and LUL effects. Interestingly, the soil depth did not influence LUL effect on soil spectra. The effect of climate, LUL and their interactions were observed on the SCS. Higher available N was observed in soils from ancient forests than in soils from very recent forests. Moreover, mineral fraction discriminated soils with different LUL (very recent vs recent and ancient forests) and this depended on climate. Under subhumid climate, soils from very recent forests were indeed negatively correlated with the mineral fraction, while under humid climate, they were positively correlated to it. Finally, a recovery of soils chemical properties was observed in recent forests under humid climate, while under subhumid climate, SCS of post agricultural forests was different from that of ancient forests.

Reclamation of ancient agricultural terraces in the Negev Highlands; soil, archeological, hydrological, and topographical perspectives

AbstractAncient terraced lands are considered badlands without profitable utilization except for urbanization. Nevertheless, this attitude prevents further agricultural utilization in addition to the loss of archaeological data. The study hypothesizes that the main influencing part in these systems is the retaining walls (RW). An analysis of their current influence on soil fertility, stability, and hydrology will indicate their adequate reclamation strategy. The objectives are to gather the influences and correlate them to the RW constructional state. In the Yeroham Hills, three parallel located terraced systems (one on the Wadi Shualim channel and the other, which is located on its banks) were studied. Their ancient agricultural utilization was dated, after in‐site excavations, to the Roman until early Islamic eras. Ten representative RWs were chosen, five from each terraced system. Their influences on the soil fertility, hydrology, and physical properties of the adjacent soil and 2 m ahead (the terrace) were studied. The finding indicates that the RW serves as a physical ecosystem engineer with positive influences on soil organic matter (0.5% higher content compared to the terrace) and land stability properties (maturated soil biocrust and higher aggregate stability). Comparison of the finding from both terraced irrigation systems, which differ in their conservation state, enables to determine the agricultural utilization and land stabilization after an adequate reclamation strategy, which is based on the RWs constructional parameters analyzed in‐site, and adaption to the current floodwater paths. The study's principles and analysis scheme enable the study and conservation of similar areas worldwide for increased utilization and profitability.

Green Spaces in Sana’a Old City - Yemen between Past to Present

The presence of nature was evident in the cities and villages of Yemen - a country located on the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula - with a varied topography between mountains, plains, deserts, and islands. Formerly Yemen was given many names. For example, the Greeks and Romans called it "Arabia Felix'', while Arab historians called it "green Yemen” due to its fertility, greenness, and picturesque nature. Ancient Yemeni settled in good geographical areas with suitable natural conditions and practised agriculture. Despite the rugged terrain of the mountainous heights, he built agricultural terraces on the mountains and found irrigation systems, so he dug wells and built dams such as the Ma’arib dam.

Climate change vulnerability and smallholder farmers’ adaptive responses in the semi-arid Far North Region of Cameroon

Climate change and variability contribute to exacerbating poverty and social unrest in poor countries. Therefore, it becomes important to assess vulnerability and adaptation measures to raise awareness and monitoring of climate change adaptation policy for better decision-making. This research examines how farmers perceive their vulnerability and how they respond to climate change in the semi-arid Far North Region of Cameroon. Using both quantitative and qualitative approaches, data on perceptions with regards to vulnerability and adaptation responses to climate change related hazards were collected based on expert opinions, individual farmers’ interviews, and focus group discussion. The qualitative data were triangulated with direct observations in the field. The results reveal that farmers are mostly concerned about drought and decrease in rainfall. Thus, they have mainly implemented behavioral and locally-made options such as short-cycle varieties, terrace farming, half-moon, and bunds, among others, to overcome water shortages. Nevertheless, these measures were not solely driven by vulnerability; the socioeconomic context might play a role. Moreover, farmers perceive a limited capacity to adapt to climate change, which suggests that the government and policy-makers should focus, not only on implementing planned adaptation strategies, but also on the improvement and promotion of farmers’ autonomous adaptation strategies.

Mitigating risks of hybrid rice use in terrace agriculture

The Honghe Hani Rice Terraces of Yunnan Province have become a national emblem for China and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but some are beginning to crumble. This research attempts to address why this is happening and what can be done about it. Previous work has failed to adequately address the possible shortcomings of recently introduced seed and water management technologies, their particular effect on rice terraces and the people who depend upon them. In an effort to better understand the issue, field observation was triangulated with in-depth interviews with local people, and the examination of scientific literature. To do this, the authors spent time in China with a translator in a key village known to be first in the area to truly succeed in carving the rice terraces and in making the mountain slope irrigation system required actually working. Results validated by experts in each field indicate that while the new seed and technologies do save water and improve lives, paired with migration, they may also be threatening the long-term viability of rice terracing in the region. The authors conclude that an integrated approach is needed and put forward a strategic blueprint to reinforce ecological, social and economic longevity. They also call for more research into the applicability of these resilience measures in other hybrid rice terracing regions, such as in the Philippines and Vietnam.

Pedology of archaeological stone-wall bench terraces

Agricultural terraces are the most widespread archaeological landforms worldwide. Despite their far-reaching prevalence in many inhabited parts of the world, archaeological soils in terraces (hereafter ‘terrace soils’) are scarcely studied and their nature is poorly defined. This study aims to depict a space–time framework for the development of calcareous soils in archaeological stone-wall bench terraces and suggest modifications to their soil classification and mapping. To do so, we examined soils at the forefront of five terraces in Catalonia (Spain), that had been previously dated with optically stimulated luminescence to periods from Medieval-Late Middle Ages (1200 ± 60 CE) to Modern (1810 ± 15 CE). Local soils surrounding the terraces are Entisols and Inceptisols in the relatively drier areas and Mollisols in the moister areas. Methods applied are field survey, standard physico-chemical analyses, and soil micromorphology. CaCO3 content, P, OM and CEC show irregularly trending values throughout the profiles. Micromorphology shows abundant content of charred components throughout the profiles and slight discontinuous carbonate recrystallization, mostly biogenic. Based on these observations, the main parent material was determined to be local soil that was redeposited by workforce as fill material for terracing. We further interpret that pedogenesis mainly involved structure development under the influence of anthroturbation and bioturbation, inheritance of ex situ aggregates from parent soil, reaggregation with little occurrence of organic matter, and low levels of lessivage and CaCO3 redistribution. We found that pedogenesis in these terraces started in a chaotic manner, considerably faster than pedogenesis in natural soils, primarily influenced by the act of terracing, the maturity of its inherited parent soil material, and relatively large depth. Therefore, early stages of terrace soil development can differ greatly from known soil models, questioning paradigms of pedogenic ‘time zero’ and ‘maturity’ in terrace soil. We suggest four terrace fill settings for terrace material and propose a model for the state of entropy and development of terrace soils. We classify the studied soils as Archaeo-Anthroportic Xerorthents, (Anthrosols (Calcaric, Escalic)), and Archaeo-Anthroportic Typic Haploxerolls (Anthrosols (Calcaric, Escalic, Relocatic, Anthromollic)), both overlying buried Inceptisols (Cambisols). Our primary conclusion is that terrace soils should be separately classified and mapped by treating terracescapes as distinct morpho-stratigraphic units in which age is the same as the age of their geomorphic surface. This study advances the pedological understanding of archaeological stone-wall bench terraces and identifies gaps in the understanding of terrace soils.

The Emergence of Terrace Farming in the Arid Zone of the Levant—Past Perspectives and Future Implications

Terrace farming installations occupy vast desert areas in the Southern Levant. Their construction in harsh environments raises critical questions focusing on the natural, political, and economic circumstances promoting their construction and operation. The present review, based on new observations and previously published materials, focused on three different arid regions located across the Southern Levant, namely the Eastern Marmarica of Northwestern Egypt, the Negev Desert of Israel, and the Petra region in Jordan. The comparison between the regions allows us to uncover the forces behind this vast phenomenon, and to draw conclusions on the relevance of these arid zones to past and present agricultural productivity. The results of this study showed that the environmental conditions in the Southern Levant provided soil and water throughout the entire Holocene, and that terrace farming was a well-known method to the early inhabitants of the region. However, the actual implementation of the vast phase of terrace farming was diachronic across the region, according to the political and economic circumstances promoting their construction at each location. As enhanced desertification is expected to accelerate during the coming decades, the maintenance of agricultural terraces is vital for the conservation of agricultural productivity in the forthcoming warming world, especially in arid lands.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION IN THE ITUM-KALINSKY DISTRICT OF THE CHECHEN REPUBLIC IN 2021

The article presents the results of archaeological surveys conducted in 2021 on the territory of lands allocated for economic development under the project “Construction of a Tower Small Hydroelectric Power Station on the Argun River in the Itum-Kalinsky district of the Chechen Republic”. The purpose of the work was to localize on the ground and clarify the location of cultural heritage objects relative to the above-mentioned land plot, to ensure the preservation of archaeological monuments known from archival data located in the area of construction work, to identify new archaeological monuments in order to register them for state registration, protection and introduction into scientific circulation. During the work, the previously known objects of cultural heritage “Ushkaloy watchtowers-twins”, “Ushkaloy burial ground” were examined and two new objects of cultural heritage were identified: the complex of archaeological monuments “Bashin-Kali”, including the remains of the fortification of the Caucasian war period “Bashin-Kali” of the 19th century (built in 1858), two destroyed burial grounds of the early Iron Age – the Middle Ages and the settlement of the Bronze Age, as well as the burial ground “Guchum-Kali”. The works included the study of agricultural terraces of the economic territory of Guchum-Kali village. On the territory, in some places, several foundations of residential and outbuildings have been recorded, according to local residents, dating back to the period of the 30-40s of the XX century. The laying of pits on the terraces revealed the presence of materials dating back to the 19th-20th centuries. The high saturation of the exploration site with monuments opens up prospects for further study of the territory not only of the Itum-Kalinsky district, but also the study of archaeological monuments of the mountainous regions of Chechnya as a whole.

Evaluation of traditional rain-fed agricultural terraces for soil erosion control through UAV observation in the middle mountain of Nepal

The livelihood of most people in the mountainous region of Nepal depends on traditional farming practices. Farmers modify their lands by constructing narrow outward sloping terraces to control soil erosion in the mountain and hill of Nepal. However, preliminary observation reveals that farmers adopt different strategies to manage outward sloping terraces according to the amount of rainfall so as to avoid the impact from soil erosion due to excessive rainfall. Thus, this study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the traditional practice of topographic management of outward sloping rain-fed terraces to control soil erosion. The study makes a comparative analysis of topographic values of terraces and the estimated rates of soil erosion in different rainfall regions. Topographic values were derived from high spatial resolution (20 cm) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data acquired by Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) was used to estimate the rate of soil erosion based on this high-resolution DEM together with other required variables. The research revealed that the traditional practice of topographic modification is highly effective to control soil erosion, as no significant differences in the rates of soil erosion were found even though the amount of rainfall considerably varies at different sites.

How soil conservation influences agricultural land prices

AbstractConservation practices preserve soil quality and may also increase the value of agricultural land. The economic benefits of conservation practices include increased agricultural yields, decreased risk of production losses from weather events, decreased number of farming operations, simplification of farm management, and decreased production costs. We analyze the links between soil conservation practices and the value of agricultural lands. The soil conservation practices considered in this study include no‐tillage, crop rotation, contour farming, and the use of agricultural terraces. We use municipal data on annual crops in the state of Paraná from the 2006 Brazilian Census of Agriculture. Results show that the average value of lands under conventional tillage is between 10 and 22% lower than lands under no‐tillage, ceteris paribus. The economic benefits of adopting no‐tillage can be maximized when performed in conjunction with other conservation practices, including crop rotation, contour farming, and agricultural terracing. Finally, we discuss the critical effect of soil conservation and conservation agriculture on land prices and how these factors may affect farmers’ decision‐making.

Evolutionary Overview of Terrace Research Based on Bibliometric Analysis in Web of Science from 1991 to 2020.

Based on the Web of Science core collection database, this paper retrieves 349 research papers on terraced fields published during 1991–2020. Keyword co-occurrence analysis, cluster analysis, and thematic evolutionary analysis were used to identify the evolutionary path of terrace research. The findings were as follows: (1) In the past 20 years, the study of terraced fields has shown an upward trend. The number of annual published papers during 2012–2020 was much more than that during 1991–2011, but papers during 1991–2011 were more academically influential than those during 2012–2020. (2) Regional analysis showed that terrace research in China is the most abundant currently, and is mainly focused on agricultural production, agricultural engineering, cultural tourism, and ecological environment. (3) Keyword co-occurrence analysis showed that terrace landscape, terrace agriculture, terrace abandonment, land use change, soil and water conservation, and sustainable utilization of typical terraces are the main modules of current terrace studies. (4) In a temporal dynamic perspective, terrace research presented 10 main evolutionary paths during 1991–2020, reflecting the trend of terrace research towards sustainable terrace development of ecological agriculture and ecosystem service. (5) Finally, this paper suggests that here is a need to deepen studies on terrace ecosystem services and human well-being based on their structure and processes, to analyze the interaction and comprehensive effect of natural process and humanistic driving forces on terrace abandonment, and to explore the multi-functional benefits and sustainable management of high quality terraced landscape.

Slope Exposure and Its Effect on Chemical and Biological Soil Properties on Agricultural Terraces of the Eastern Caucasus

Slope Exposure and Its Effect on Chemical and Biological Soil Properties on Agricultural Terraces of the Eastern Caucasus

A Multitemporal Fragmentation-Based Approach for a Dynamics Analysis of Agricultural Terraced Systems: The Case Study of Costa Viola Landscape (Southern Italy)

Among landscapes, rural landscapes are important because they simultaneously present functional and cultural aspects. Rural landscapes are often created to modify the Earth’s surface according to different human needs and, among these modifying activities, terracing has significant anthropogenic effect. A multitemporal approach that covers a significant time interval is crucial for monitoring the integrity and cultural value of historical rural landscapes. The present research aims to study the fragmentation dynamics detectable in an active agricultural terraced system of historical and cultural relevance over a considerable time interval, by conducting a morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA). We analysed a period of about 60 years, from 1955 to 2014, considering five intermediate years (1976, 1989, 1998, 2008, and 2012) and investigated the dynamics that occurred. We detected a trend of abandonment of agricultural terraces, with a reduction in area from 813.25 ha (in 1955) to 118.79 ha (in 2014). The MSPA results showed a decrease in core areas, the most stable pattern, and an increase in the relative importance of other less stable classes. Moreover, we highlighted two different fragmentation dynamics, i.e., one between 1955 and 1976 and the other between 1998 and 2008.

Land Use Change in a Pericolonial Society: Intensification and Diversification in Ifugao, Philippines Between 1570 and 1800 CE

Land use modelling is increasingly used by archaeologists and palaeoecologists seeking to quantify and compare the changing influence of humans on the environment. In Southeast Asia, the intensification of rice agriculture and the arrival of European colonizers have both been seen as major catalysts for deforestation, soil erosion, and biodiversity change. Here we consider the Tuwali-Ifugao people of the Cordillera Central (Luzon, Philippines), who resisted Spanish colonial subjugation from the 16th to the mid-nineteenth century, in part through the development of a world-renowned system of intensive wet-rice terrace agriculture. To quantify changes in how the Tuwali-Ifugao used their environment, we model land use in Old Kiyyangan Village, a long-inhabited settlement, at two timepoints: circa 1570 CE, prior to the Spanish arrival in Luzon, and circa 1800 CE, before the village was sacked by Spanish military expeditions. Our model demonstrates that between 1570 and 1800 the adoption of rice as a staple and the corresponding expansion in terrace agriculture, along with a general diversification of diet and land use, enabled the village’s population to double without increasing total land use area. Further, this major intensification led to the solidification of social hierarchies and occurred without a proportional increase in deforestation.

From fragility to sustainability: Geoarchaeological investigations within the Maltese Archipelago

The Maltese Archipelago is a microcosm of long-term Anthropocene human manipulation of the environment spanning the last 8000 years. Despite their apparent fragility, the islands continue to sustain an increasing population. This paper summarises the geoarchaeological methods employed by the ERC-funded FRAGSUS Project and an associated PhD project which explored the terraced landscapes of these islands. Our projects employed archaeological excavation, sediment coring, palynology, soil survey, micromorphology, geochemistry, and absolute dating to obtain a new understanding of long-term landscape change. These scientific analyses are combined with historical data in the form of 19th Century land value assessments which offer new insights into folk concepts of agricultural viability. Landscape changes in the islands began with Neolithic agricultural activities from 5500 cal BC. These caused soil thinning which was further exacerbated by increasingly arid climatic conditions. Soil management strategies are then evident from the late 2nd millennium BC, persisting through medieval times, when the protection of red soils became enshrined in law, and into the present day, when agricultural terraces are the dominant landform in the rural landscape. The combined efforts of these projects exemplify the value of geoarchaeology in providing an environmental narrative that contextualizes the human history of landscapes. Our account of longue durée landscape use, abuse, and change is a fitting case history for the present state of the environment in Malta and beyond. Persistent development is now expanding urban sprawl into the managed, yet still fragile, rural landscape, resulting in a piecewise erasing of valuable historic agriscapes in the Mediterranean region.