Agricultural Programs Research Articles

Evaluating the Impact of Agricultural Product Geographical Indication Program on Rural Income: A Case Study of the Yangtze River Delta Region in China

Evaluating the Impact of Agricultural Product Geographical Indication Program on Rural Income: A Case Study of the Yangtze River Delta Region in China

Impact Assessment of Government Funding for Subsistence, Smallholder Farmers, Communities, and Households on Food Security: An Advice for Extension Services

This study examined the impact of government funding on food security for subsistence farming, communities, households, and smallholder farmers in Frances Baard Municipality. Food insecurity has been a global phenomenon that has been on the increase since 2015, and it is thought to be a result of growing conflict, pandemic, and climate-related shocks. The analysis methods employed in this study were mainly cluster and discriminant analysis (DA). Simple random sampling techniques were used to select 533 farmers. The cluster analysis results reveal that Land Redistribution for Agricultural Development (LRAD) occupies the highest rank, followed by a Poverty Relief Programme and Land Restitution programme. In contrast, discriminant analysis (DA) results show that an Agricultural Starter Pack Programme is highly likely to increase the impact of food security in households when other interventions are held constant. The study concludes that to improve the food security of the Frances Baard Municipal District, the government should consistently improve the performance of these programmes. To improve the performance of these programmes, it is therefore recommended that the following programmes be resourced: the Agricultural Starter Pack Programme, Comprehensive Agricultural Support Programme (CASP), Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP), Poverty Relief Programme (PRP), and Food Parcel Scheme (FPS).

Payments and penalties in ecosystem services programs

Payment for ecosystem services (PES) program contracts include penalties for non-performance to ensure that these programs receive the environmental benefits they have been paying for. The standard penalty structure in PES programs requires participants to pay back all program payments received if the contract is terminated before the end of the contract lifetime. We derive the optimal non-completion penalty structure, which decouples the penalty from payments received. In contrast to the backward-looking standard penalty, the optimal penalty is forward-looking and equals the principal's net future environmental benefits lost due to contract non-completion. The optimal penalty thus falls over the life of the contract, in contrast to the standard penalty, which rises over the life of the contract. A numerical policy simulation with heterogeneous agents based on features in federal agricultural conservation programs in the United States suggests that the optimal penalty structure can increase realized net environmental benefits significantly. Our results suggest that performance of most kinds of PES programs can be enhanced by decoupling non-completion penalties from payments and by adjusting how penalties vary over contract lifetimes.

Why are non-wood forest products still the poor relative in Global Forest Resources Assessments?

To conserve and use forests sustainably, it is helpful to have accurate and regular assessments of their health and status. A key tool in this regard is the regular global overview provided by the Food and Agriculture Programme (FAO) in their Global Forest Resources Assessments (GFRA), now issued every five years. As of 2000, the GFRA required member countries to report statistics related to non-wood forest products (NWFPs). However, the NWFP statistics in the country appendices to the GFRA bear little resemblance to the situation on the ground, as shown by our assessment of entries for India, Nigeria, and South Africa against verified in-country studies. Our analysis shows that GFRAs often inaccurately report NWFP quantities, lack consistency between reports, omit data on amounts or values even when in-country studies exist, list the top ten NWFPs inaccurately, and fail to cite sources. Taken together, these shortcomings mean that the NWFP country statistics in the GFRA cannot be used to make comparisons between countries, regions or globally, track trends, or make policy or management decisions. The underlying reasons for these shortcomings are considered. Lastly, we suggest nine steps that need to be implemented to make the NWFP section of the GFRA reports a reliable and valued source of data and global analysis, that can be used by policy- and decision-makers and researchers globally.

Rural youth migration intentions in Ecuador: The role of agricultural education programs

In the last decade, rural youth worldwide have grappled with a crisis marked by limited economic opportunities, inadequate services, and underdeveloped infrastructure in their home communities. This has driven a significant uptick in rural-to-urban migration, especially among young people in developing countries. Despite its lower urbanization rate compared to neighboring nations, Ecuador has seen a consistent rise in rural-to-urban youth migration. This trend is primarily attributed to environmental degradation, community conflicts, and rural areas' lack of educational and employment prospects. This study investigated the migration intentions of high school students in rural Ecuador, specifically those enrolled in agricultural and non-agricultural programs. The findings reveal that agricultural programs significantly influence youth migration intentions. Those in agricultural programs express an inclination to migrate. Moreover, students who have migrated before are more likely to migrate. These results underscore the importance of tailoring educational initiatives to inspire youth to explore opportunities within their rural communities. Future research should delve into the perspectives of rural youth and evaluate the effectiveness of agricultural education programs, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of rural development and strategies for retaining youth in rural areas.

The effect of carbon farming training on food security and development resilience in Northern Ghana

ABSTRACT Carbon farming has recently been advocated for as climate change and variability mitigation and/or adaptation strategy in global agriculture. In this study, we address an important research question of whether carbon farming training can improve household resilience capacity as well as food security by employing internationally standardized indicators. Household resilience capacity and its components are measured using the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)’s resilience capacity index while the food security measures used include household and child food insecurity experience scale (FIES and CFIES), food consumption score (FCS) and household dietary diversity score (HDDS). We relied on doubly robust treatment effect estimators to account for potential selection bias and heterogeneity. We find that carbon farming training has no statistically significant effect on overall household resilience capacity. However, we find a large and statistically significant effect on key components of resilience (specifically, access to basic services, assets and social safety nets) and a marginal improvement in adaptive capacity. We also find statistically significant effect on FCS and HDDS but not for the other food security indicators (FIES and CFIES). Overall, the results suggest that agricultural training programs, particularly climate change adaptation capacity building initiatives, could improve important welfare measures in developing countries.

A Scoping Review on Youth Participation in Agriculture: Sustainable Development, Food Security, and Economic Growth

Youth participation in agriculture is a critical aspect of sustainable development, food security, and economic growth in many regions worldwide. This scoping review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of existing literature on youth engagement in agricultural activities. The review explores various dimensions of youth involvement in agriculture, including motivations, challenges, opportunities, and impacts. The methodology involves a systematic search of electronic databases, including scholarly articles, reports, and grey literature, to identify relevant studies published within a specified timeframe. The inclusion criteria encompass literature that examines the participation of youth (aged 15-35) in agricultural practices, policies, programs, and initiatives across different geographic regions and socio-economic contexts. Initial findings suggest a growing interest in understanding and promoting youth engagement in agriculture, driven by concerns about rural development, unemployment, and food insecurity. Motivations for youth involvement vary widely and may include economic incentives, cultural traditions, social factors, and environmental consciousness. However, numerous challenges hinder youth participation, such as limited access to land, financial resources, education, and technology, as well as negative perceptions of agriculture as a career. Moreover, the review identifies a range of opportunities for enhancing youth involvement in agriculture, including entrepreneurship programs, vocational training, access to markets, digital platforms, and policy interventions that support youth-friendly agricultural policies and strategies. Furthermore, the review highlights the diverse impacts of youth engagement in agriculture, including contributions to food production, innovation, rural development, poverty alleviation, and sustainable livelihoods. Overall, this scoping review provides valuable insights into the complexities surrounding youth participation in agriculture and underscores the need for multifaceted approaches to address barriers, leverage opportunities, and harness the potential of young people in shaping the future of agriculture and rural communities. Future research directions and implications for policy and practice are also discussed.

Determinants of Income Inequality Sources among Women in Rural Oyo State, Nigeria

This paper applies the regression-based inequality decomposition approach to explore determinants of income inequality sources among women in rural Oyo State, Nigeria. A four-stage sampling procedure was used in the collection of primary data with purposive selection of two agricultural development programme zones in Oyo State of Nigeria. 150 respondents were eventually used for the study. Structured questionnaires and interview schedules were used to collect data. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Shapley decomposition approach. Age and household size of women were 35.5±1.06 years and 8.0±0.59 persons, respectively. Most respondents (88.0%) were married and 43.3% were farmers with income of N24,196.76±11,897.90 per month. Sources that largely explain inequality were primary occupation (0.5551), farm size (0.2523) and household assets (0.0766) and the relative contributions of these factors sum up to 80%. Total inequality computed by the Gini index was 0.2206 and it implies that the contribution of the predicted residual term to income inequality in this case was 22.06%.The marginal contribution of the estimated income sources of the weighted mean with no negative values from level 1 to 12 were primary occupation, educational level, workers per household, number of assets and location with weighted marginal contribution of 0.0125, 0.0120, 0.0105, 0.0071 and 0.0053 respectively. Narrowing the gap between those at the top and the bottom of income distribution will reduce inequality in the households and the nation at large and that is the more reason this study needs attention because within group components overwhelmingly accounted for inequality compared to the between group components. The role of spatial inequality and policies that encourage entrepreneurship training and non-formal education for women in rural areas would be inequality reducing, and would tend to be more effective if additional policy instruments are used to target other sources of measured income inequality.

Farmer Application

The aim of the program is to provide a platform for farmers to rent modern agricultural machinery and equipment as well as rent storage space for crops. The app will also connect to government servers to track data on crops, fertilizer use and government funds. Records of machinery and equipment will be kept along with details of the crop stored. In India, agriculture is the main source of income for the majority of the population. However, many farmers are not aware of advances in agricultural technology and cannot understand the market value of their products. That's why they often sell products at very low prices. In addition, they also try to follow the government's agricultural plans and reports. To solve these problems, our initiative will create a platform where farmers can get the latest information on vegetables and fruits in every market in India. This will help them sell their products at reasonable prices and improve their financial situation. Additionally, farmers will also receive notifications regarding government agricultural programs and in-app notifications to benefit from these programs. Additionally, our application will help farmers prepare the required products by estimating the amount of vegetables and fruits according to the market. We will also include weather data to support farmers' planning for the next 2-3 days. Overall, our programs focus on providing farmers with new knowledge and technology that will improve their livelihoods and increase their productivity

Fresh or dry maize or both: Which is most economical and preferred by farmers?

As a staple crop of great importance in sub-Saharan Africa, maize is essential for the production of food for humans and animals, particularly in the raising of poultry and livestock. Smallholder farmers in Ghana are the main producers of maize, and they frequently have difficulties in turning their crop into a sustainable source of income. As a result, there is an increasing need for these farmers to look into other options such as switching from traditional dry maize production to growing fresh maize. This circumstance calls for a critical analysis to ascertain whether producing for fresh or dry maize markets yields higher profitability. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to estimate the profitability of Ghana's fresh and dry maize markets, examine the factors influencing farmers' market choices as well as rank the production constraints. Data was collected from 390 maize farmers using questionnaires. Gross margin analysis, multinomial logit regression and Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance, were the methods of analysis. According to the study, fresh maize yields a profit of 78.00 pesewas for every GH¢ 1.00 invested, both alternatives generate 71.00 pesewas, and dry maize yields 67.00 pesewas. This implies that even though all three businesses are profitable, fresh maize cultivation stands out as the most lucrative. The results of the multinomial logit regression analysis showed that the choice of maize production systems is influenced by socioeconomic characteristics, farming experience, and loan availability. The Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance analysis confirms consensus on constraints, with lack of finance, pest issues, poor roads, and low maize prices as key challenges. According to the report, farmers may increase their profits by diversifying their crops to include the fresh maize market. Additionally, the government could assist these farmers by making financing more accessible to them through collaborations with financial institutions and specially designed agricultural loan programs.

Human capital development programme for mid-career agricultural extension workers: The case of Sokoine University of Agriculture BSc. agricultural extension and education training programme

Of recent, there is changing work environment for agricultural extension workers as they operate under the multi-stakeholders’ phenomenon. This increasingly poses a challenge to frontline extension workers trained on linear model (extension-researcher-farmer linkage) in extension services delivery. This is because, facilitating the multi-stakeholder processes requires competent agricultural extension workers well-versed in human relations. In recognizing the importance of human capital development for agricultural extension service delivery in Tanzania, Sokoine University of Agriculture established a mid-career agricultural extension training programme in 1998. Informed by the human capital theory, this study employed an evaluative study design to assess the impact of the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) mid-career BSc. Agricultural Extension and Education training programme on human capital development. The study was conducted in five agro-ecological zones, that is, Eastern, Western, Central, Southern Highlands and Lake zones in Tanzania. The development of the sampling frame was done in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries (MLF) and President’s Office-Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG). A total of 200 respondents-100 alumni and 100 farmers were sampled proportionately. A snowball sampling technique was used to replace the respondents who were selected randomly but could not be reached for interview. Data were collected from respondents through a questionnaire that covered a set of competences through analysis of the mid-career agricultural extension curriculum and consultations with public and private employers. In addition, literature review and observations were also used to supplement the collected information. The findings indicate that the agricultural training programme at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) equipped graduates with appropriate knowledge, competencies and skills that improved their job performance and productive capacities that enabled them to interact with various stakeholders and facilitate multi-stakeholders’ processes. This is in line with the purpose of establishing the programme. Hence, this points to the need for continuous human capital building and motivations of agricultural extension workers for the improvement of their performance. Key words: Mid-career, Agricultural extension workers, Curriculum, Human capital, Multi-stakeholder processes

Effectiveness of agricultural extension models in food crop production in Cross River State, Nigeria

This study assessed the effectiveness of agricultural extension models in food crop production in Cross River State. Specifically, the study described the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, identified the level of extension model activities in crop production and analyzed the effectiveness of agricultural extension models in the study area. A multi-stage random sampling technique was used in selecting respondents for the study. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, mean scores, percentages and standard deviation were used for the study. The result showed that the respondents had a mean age of x ̅ = 5. Majority (77.00%) of the respondents were married. Furthermore, the result of the socio economic characteristics of the respondents also showed that a negligible proportion (17.20%) of the respondents had no formal education. About 16.10% had primary level of education. A fair proportion (45.00%) had secondary level of education. Also, about 21.70% of the respondents had tertiary level of education. These implied that the respondents were educated. Educational attainment would make the farmers more responsible and responsive to agricultural extension models, programs and policies. The result also indicated that 79.50% of the respondents were farmers. These implied that farming was the major means of livelihood in the area. The result of distribution of respondents based on extension models available in the area showed that “training and visit” extension model was ranked first with standard deviation of 1.65; this means that the “training and visit” model of extension had a high level of acceptability in ensuring food crop production. Contact farmer model was ranked 2nd, with standard deviation of 1.28. This means that farmers had contact with fellow farmers faster than extension officers. In the same vein, video-based extension model was ranked 8th with standard deviation of 0.64. The result of the effectiveness of extension model revealed that mean (x ̅) of 3.58, 3.35, 3.49, 3.20 affirmed that agricultural extension models populated by extension officers are effective in food crop production in the study area. Similarly, individual persons oriented model such as mass media model with mean of x ̅ = 3.21 was very effective in food crop production. These results implied that agricultural extension models were effective in food crop production. The study concluded that the agricultural extension models are very effective and positively related to food crop production. Key words: Agriculture, Cross River, Effectiveness, Extension models, Food crop, Production

Intra-household gender dynamics and the adoption of best practices among teff farmers in Ethiopia

Teff farming in Ethiopia is commonly seen as being dominated by men, with women playing supporting roles on some aspects of the growing process. This study is rooted in existing literature on drivers of Best Practices (BP) adoption and decision-making theory and is unique in that it focuses primarily on understanding how gender-specific factors influence decision-making on the adoption of BPs. To this end, the study assessed the intra-household gender dynamics at play within farming households in Amhara, Ethiopia, and their influence on deciding whether or not to adopt agricultural best practices for teff farming. These gender dynamics include the division of labor between women and men, intra-household decision-making processes, social and cultural norms and access factors (such as access to information, training, credit and control over income). Using data from a three-round quantitative survey with one woman and one man in 555 households, as well as focus group discussions and in-depth interviews, this study is uniquely placed to assess the impact of these gender-specific and intra-household factors on the adoption of best practices. The findings show that households where women are more involved in teff farming, have less input into decision-making, less control over income, and more access to information and adopt on average more best practices. However, there is significant heterogeneity when looking at individual best practices, with women’s decision-making power or access to resources particularly important for specific practices such as sowing in rows. This study implies that designing more gender-sensitive agricultural programs and extension services in Ethiopia – specifically on practices relevant to women and men – can increase best practice adoption, with the ultimate aim of increasing productivity and income for teff farming households, and empowering women. Since male and female farmers are involved in different practices, access to resources and decision-making power have different impacts depending on the gender of the respondent and the practice analyzed, and there is no “one size fits all” solution to improve teff farming productivity. Key words: intra-household dynamics, decision-making, gender roles, best practice adoption, teff

An Evaluation of Command Agriculture and Food Security Among Communal Farmers in Rural Zimbabwe

The Zimbabwean government commissioned the Command Agriculture Programme as one of the follow-up programmes to the land reform programme in 2016–2017 seasons. The programme sought to increase food and nutrition security and reduce import bill by increasing sustainable agricultural production. Mixed sentiments and debates have emerged on whether the programme has been effective enough to fulfil its objective. In light of this background, this research sought to assess the effectiveness of Command Agriculture among communal farmers in Murehwa district who have been part of the beneficiaries of the scheme. The research is evaluative in nature as it adopted one of the OECD evaluation criteria of establishing the effectiveness of a programme. The evaluation placed much emphasis on the outcome level results as well as on implementation processes. Key informant interviews, focus group discussions and questionnaires were used in this study. The major finding was that there has only been a marginal improvement in food security and productivity in the beneficiary households. This means that sustainable food access, availability, utilisation and stability, which entails food security, has been low in the district in terms of feeding to the overall objective of the programme. Strict monitoring and evaluation is recommended for programme efficiency and effectiveness.

Farm Assist – Comprehensive Scheme Recommendation System for Enhanced Farming

India’s economy and employment are heavily reliant on agriculture. Farm Assist emerges as a groundbreaking digital platform, reshaping how farmers access and leverage agricultural support. This web-based tool stands at the forefront of facilitating farmers with custom-tailored recommendations for agricultural programs and real-time updates on farming news. At its essence, Farm Assist harnesses the power of advanced data processing techniques, including machine learning, to sift through and interpret a diverse range of data specific to each farmer, such as crop varieties, land extent, and local climatic conditions. This approach ensures the delivery of highly relevant and practical scheme suggestions directly applicable to each farmer’s unique situation. The interface of Farm Assist is crafted for simplicity and ease of use, ensuring that farmers of varying digital literacy can navigate and utilize the platform effectively. This aspect is crucial in diminishing the digital barriers commonly encountered in rural farming sectors. Moreover, Farm Assist incorporates a constantly updating feed of agricultural news, equipping farmers with cutting-edge knowledge and practices in the agricultural realm, thus fostering well-informed agricultural decisions and modern cultivation techniques. Key words: Farm Assist, Web-based Dashboard, Scheme Recommendation System, Crop Prediction, Precision Agriculture, Real Time Farming News, Weather Forecast

How the United States learned to commodify the transnational atom

ABSTRACT In consultation with The Department of State and the USAEC, and other state and non-state actors – including the Atomic Industrial Forum Inc. and the Fund for Peaceful Atomic Development – organized the first international missions to investigate if and how nuclear technologies could be mobilized as commodities and symbols of possible futures to the rest of the world, with a special focus on underdeveloped countries. Nevertheless, they soon realized that selling atomic development required a set of skills, tools, and knowledge not found in the usual and tested aid programs for agriculture and public health. Based on John Krige’s reflections on the co-production of knowledge and the writing of transnational history, we will explore how knowledge for nuclear development was co-produced in countries like Egypt, Turkey, Mexico, and the United States.

US Consumers’ Awareness and Opinion of Boxwood Shrubs and Boxwood Blight

Boxwood blight is a significant threat to nurseries, garden centers, landscaping businesses, and homeowners, causing both financial and ecological damage. This fungal disease is primarily caused by two species, with Calonectria pseudonaviculata being the only reported casual species in the United States. The pathogen is spread by wind-driven rain, water splash, and contaminated plants, emphasizing the need for exclusion, sanitation protocols, cultural practices, and fungicides to manage its spread. Recently, efforts have shifted from containment to disease management, focusing on fungicide efficacy, diagnostic assays, and boxwood production analysis. Agricultural extension programs promote best practices to prevent disease introduction into nursery and landscape environments. Understanding consumer awareness and perceived risk regarding infestations is crucial as control measures evolve. In our Jul 2020 survey, which had 2795 completed responses from across the United States, we assessed consumer knowledge and opinions regarding boxwood shrubs and Boxwood light. The findings revealed demographic variations in awareness and opinions. Suburban residents were more aware of boxwood blight, whereas urban residents had a higher opinion of boxwood shrubs. From the tobit model, men were more likely to purchase boxwood compared with women despite knowing about blight, and Caucasians compared with non-Caucasians exhibited decreased liking for boxwood after seeing pictures of blight-infected plants. These insights can inform targeted communication strategies and assist consumers, vendors, and related industries in addressing the challenges posed by Boxwood blight. Further research into alternative plant preferences among consumers is also warranted for better development of boxwood blight management strategies.

THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT IN UKRAINE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CLASSICAL POLITICAL ECONOMY IN THE LATE XVIII – EARLY XX CENTURY

The purpose of the work. The article describes and analyses the achievements of such figures as S. Desnitsky, M. Bałudjanski, V. Karazin in the process of formation and development of Ukrainian economic thought in the period of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is analysed that the most significant influence on the system of economic views of these Ukrainian researchers was made by the concepts of representatives of classical political economy. Methodology. To achieve this goal, both general scientific and special methods of scientific cognition were used, in particular scientific abstraction, induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis – to study the sources, provisions and hypotheses expressed by S. Desnіtsky, M. Bałudjanski, V. Karazin, formed under the influence of the views of the classic of political economy A. Smith. Results. The article analyses the views and ideas of S. Desnіtsky, M. Bałudjanski, and V. Karazin in historical, evolutionary, theoretical and practical aspects. It is determined that the economic views of these Ukrainian scholars are mainly based on the theoretical foundations of classical political economy, in particular, on the concepts of A. Smith. Scientific novelty. It is substantiated that S. Desnіtsky's research was focused on the category of "property" and the analysis of property relations; M. Bałudjanski in his manuscripts approved the conceptual apparatus of political economy, studying the market mechanism, situation and competition in the field of agricultural production; V. Karazin, being a supporter of the labour theory of value, developed an agricultural programme, implemented his projects and inventions in agriculture, developing also Ukrainian technical thought. Practical Significance. The study found that theoretical scholars served the interests of resource owners, associated wealth with virtue, justified the existence of landowners and their exploitation of hired labour, and saw laziness, disinterest in labour results, and the inability to organise their work responsibly and reasonably as the main cause of poverty. For example, M. Bałudjanski and V. Karazin saw the cause of poverty of the common people of Ukraine in drunkenness and laziness, which led to moral and material impoverishment; they considered their main task to be to help wealthier peasants who had some starting capital; they received certain subventions from governments.

The Impact of Agricultural Extension Services on Farm Output: A Worldwide Viewpoint

In order to increase farm productivity and sustainability on a worldwide scale, agricultural extension services are essential in bridging the gap between research and actual farming. This study examined agricultural extension services and their effects on farm productivity. Data were collected using a questionnaire from 382 professional farmers. The results show that agricultural workshops and training positively affect farm productivity, access to government demonstration farms positively influences farm productivity, and media-based agricultural programs have a positive effect on farm productivity. Workshops and training in agriculture may have a very favorable impact on farm output. It’s important to remember that the success of agricultural workshops and training might vary depending on a number of variables, including the training's quality, the information's applicability to local circumstances, the farmers' readiness to embrace new techniques, and the post-training assistance offered. In order to increase and facilitate access to knowledge, suitable production methods, and better inputs, the findings highlight the need to strengthen farmers' organizations and last-mile agricultural input providers. Farmers must have access to knowledge about marketing and other support services that are essential for agricultural growth in order to enhance global development in order to achieve greater farm productivity.

Higher Education Institutions in Italy and Europe Offering Education and Training Programs in Social Agriculture

Over the past few decades, social agriculture, a component of multifunctional agriculture, has grown in popularity due to its numerous benefits for a variety of people, including those with learning and intellectual disabilities. A survey was conducted to assess social agricultural courses or modules offered by tertiary institutions. The study found that Italy and The Netherlands have the highest number of education and training programs that offer a full curriculum and/or individual social agriculture courses. In Norway, continuing and further education courses are frequently used to teach social agriculture. The Czech Republic, Austria, Germany, and the United Kingdom also have prominent social agriculture degree programs. The findings of this survey reveal a disconnect between the agricultural and therapeutic aspects of social agriculture educational programs. Most programs have well-tailored agriculture modules, while others have excellent therapeutic modules to the detriment of the other. Thus, social agriculture programs that focus on all aspects must be developed. Additionally, accreditation bodies are also needed.