Agricultural Policy Reform Research Articles

Efficiency of the European Union farm types: Scenarios with and without the 2013 CAP measures

Abstract The European Union Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) publishes data for the representative farms of several European Union (EU) farm types, regions and countries. In this database, the published data for the farm types allow us to assess several agricultural policies. In fact, the FADN publishes data for the EU farming types and there are not many studies about these fields in the whole European context. This study aims to bring novelty for the whole spectrum of stakeholder types in these domains. The analysis of these impacts may bring relevant insights, especially, for adjustments in the design of future strategies and plans. We analyse the evolution of the EU farm types in the last two decades with significant scenario changes like two large common agricultural policy (CAP) reforms (2003 and 2013) and suggest new approaches to the design for future measures. Statistical information from the FADN over the period 2004–2018 is considered. In addition, efficiency and productivity assessments are carried out, to assess the implications of the most recent instruments of the CAP. The results show that the policy instruments in the framework of the 2013 CAP justify the use of more inputs (or at least at higher costs) for the same level of output. In fact, the subsidies given to the farmers since 2014 mask the inefficiencies underlying some farm types. A significant decrease in the total factor productivity confirmed this trend, despite positive growth rates for the total verified output for several farm types over the period.

Farmland use data and remote sensing for ex-post assessment of CAP environmental performances: An application to soil quality dynamics in Lombardy

With the reform of the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2013, subsidies to farms are now bound to the fulfilment of environmentally friendly measures, such as crop diversification and allocation of a share of their farmland to Ecological Focus Areas, the so-called “Greening requirements”. Research on the effects of these policy changes so far have focused mainly on land use transition; however, a detailed investigation of how CAP greening affects the properties of agricultural land is required to assess the actual environmental benefits of the reform. In this study, we present a first attempt to assess the impacts of CAP greening on selected soil quality indices in Lombardy, a populated region in northern Italy where high-intensity agriculture is widespread. We combine high resolution (10/30 m) soil indices from remote sensing based on Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 data with a regional administrative database covering all agricultural parcels of the region. We then perform a correlation analysis to investigate whether and to what extent greening prescriptions affect the soil quality indices from 2014, representing pre-greening conditions, to 2017, representing greening conditions after 3 years of implementation. Our analysis indicates a high persistence of soil quality indicators and suggests that some crops might have a significant impact on soil quality dynamics, along with farm’s compliance with CAP greening. Although we identified some uncertainties in the soil indices, by integrating a large volume of data and an efficient processing algorithm our method paves the way for ex-post environmental performance assessment of agricultural policies.

Extensive sheep grazing is associated with trends in steppe birds in Spain: recommendations for the Common Agricultural Policy.

Iberian natural steppes have traditionally been used for extensive sheep grazing, which has been noted to be positively associated with steppe bird abundance and diversity. Sheep numbers in Spain, which harbors the largest European populations of many steppe bird species, decreased by 9.2 million (37.3%) between 1992 and 2020. Steppe birds in Spain have faced dramatic declines during the same period, but there is a lack of knowledge about the potential association between sheep and open-habitat bird declines. We used sheep data from the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture and bird data (1998–2018) from the Spanish Common Bird Monitoring Program to assess the association at the Spanish scale between sheep decline and the Farmland Bird Index (FBI) and the Natural Shrub-steppe Bird Index (SBI). We also used an independent dataset on population trends of the Dupont’s Lark (Chersophilus duponti) to assess the relationship between sheep numbers and the decline of this threatened steppe specialist passerine in Spain, whose European population is restricted to Iberian natural steppes. To test for a spurious relationship between temporal series, variables were tested for cointegration. After confirming cointegration, we found a strong positive relationship between sheep abundance and the trends of the FBI and SBI indices during the period 1998–2018. The association between sheep abundance and trends of the Dupont’s Lark (2004–2015) was positive although it was not statistically significant. Although the main causes of decline of farmland and steppe birds are mainly related to agricultural intensification and land use changes, the correlation found, using two independent cointegrated datasets, between the reduction in farmland and shrub-steppe birds and sheep numbers at the country scale suggests that the decline of steppe birds in Spain may be also associated with the decline in sheep numbers. This agrees with previous studies that found a positive relationship between intermediate levels of sheep grazing and steppe bird abundance in Iberian steppes. Further research (e.g. experimental studies) is needed to corroborate our study and identify the most appropriate level of grazing intensity for protecting the most farmland and shrub-steppe birds. Our results suggest that the promotion of extensive grazing should be considered as a key factor in future Common Agricultural Policy reforms and conservation programmes to protect steppe birds.

TARGETING THE REDISTRIBUTIVE PAYMENT IN SELECTED NEW EUROPEAN UNION MEMBER STATES

The most important element in the recent reform of the Common Agricultural Policy, which is intended to reduce the concentration of aid distributed under the direct support system, is the so-called redistributive payment. The redistributive effects of this instrument depend on its specific form implemented at the national level, the level of funding, and the area structure of holdings in a given country. The objective of this paper is to compare the targeting of the support distributed under the redistributive payment in the three new Member States of the European Union – Bulgaria, Lithuania and Poland. In order to achieve this objective, it was established which area groups of holdings benefit from (and which lose out on) the application of the redistributive payment in each country. In addition, the average amount of support for a holding per hectare of agricultural area, and the percentage change in this support due to the introduction of the redistributive payment, depending on the size of the holding, in individual countries, are shown as a function. The source material was the data made available by the ministries of agriculture of the countries under analysis, relating to 2018.

European Union farming systems: Insights for a more sustainable land use

AbstractThe diversity of agricultural systems in European Union (EU) regions and countries is vast and vulnerable to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reforms. The CAP instruments have suffered several significant changes over the last decades to take into account the new contexts from the various EU enlargements and problems caused by former measures. This dynamic evolution of the farming system calls for updated assessment to better understand the respective policy impacts and to support the design of new and adjusted instruments. In this context, with this research, the intention is to highlight the most recent characteristics of the EU farming system and to assess the respective impacts from CAP measures. To achieve these aims, we considered statistical information from the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) which was exploited through linear programming models. The main findings reveal that EU subsidies have no implication on the structure of EU farming systems. In other words, the most profitable farming systems are the same whether they were provided with the CAP financial support or not, namely those from the 1st Pillar. On the other hand, the CAP rules condition the farmers' options, sometimes towards adopting a more subsidised production, but with lower margins. These frameworks would not be problematic, if the farming systems were more socially and environmentally sustainable, but this is not always the case. In a future scenario of a farming sector which more regulated by the market and less so by the CAP instruments, the environmental impacts will be more short‐term than medium‐ or long‐term, where the main problem will be with energy consumption.

Book Review, SAKUYAMA Takumi, The Demise of Agricultural Iron Triangle and Agricultural Policy Reforms led by the Prime Minister’s Office:The Root Causes of TPP and Agricultural Cooperative Reform under the Abe/Suga Administration

Book Review, SAKUYAMA Takumi, The Demise of Agricultural Iron Triangle and Agricultural Policy Reforms led by the Prime Minister’s Office:The Root Causes of TPP and Agricultural Cooperative Reform under the Abe/Suga Administration

Production and Trade Impacts of CAP Post 2022 Reform on Main Croatian Crop and Livestock Markets—Partial Equilibrium Modelling Approach

The Latest Common Agricultural Policy reform intends to expand and strengthen environmental and social support and to liberalise the delivery model carried out through strategic planning. This paper aims to assess the potential impacts of the new CAP reform on the main agricultural markets in Croatia. The impact assessment is analysed using the AGMEMOD model where, in addition to the baseline scenario, three scenarios of potential changes are developed and compared to the baseline. Changes in market patterns (production, yield and net trade) at the end of the simulated period are compared with the baseline scenario results by 2030. The reduction in support levels to production, abolishment of voluntary coupled supports and introduction of additional environmental constraints have a significant impact on the main Croatian agricultural markets. Crop markets prov to be less dependent on subsidies, so that market pattern changes will not mean the loss of Croatia’s net export status for soft wheat, maize and soy beans, while barley no longer holds this status. Livestock sectors, especially beef and dairy, in addition to demonstrating a distinct lack of competitiveness even before the Croatian accession to the EU, additionally suffer significant production volume losses along with an increase in imports. Although significant, changes to the Croatian agricultural market are not dramatic enough to cause a complete production breakdown by 2030.

Spatiotemporal monsoon characteristics and maize yields in West Africa

To assess the vulnerability of rainfed agriculture in West Africa (WA) to climate change, a detailed understanding of the relationship between food crop yields and seasonal rainfall characteristics is required. The highly seasonal rainfall in the region is expected to change characteristics such as seasonal timing, duration, intensity, and intermittency. The food crop yield response to changes in these characteristics needs greater understanding. We follow a data-driven approach based on historical yield and climate data. Such an approach complements model-based approaches. Previous data-driven studies use spatially and temporally averaged precipitation measures, which do not describe the high degree of spatial and temporal variability of the West African Monsoon (WAM), the primary source of water for agriculture in the region. This has led previous studies to find small or insignificant dependence of crop yields on precipitation amount. Here, we develop metrics that characterize important temporal features and variability in growing season precipitation, including total precipitation, onset and duration of the WAM, and number of non-precipitating days. For each temporal precipitation metric, we apply several unique spatial aggregation functions that allow us to assess how different patterns of high-resolution spatial variability are related to country-level maize yields. We develop correlation analyses between spatiotemporal precipitation metrics and detrended country-level maize yields based on findings that non-climatic factors, such as agricultural policy reform and increased investment, have driven the region’s long-term increase in maize yields. Results show that that the variability in the number of days without rain during the monsoon season and the lower bounds to the spatial rain pattern and end to the monsoon season are most strongly associated with maize yields. Our findings highlight the importance of considering spatial and temporal variability in precipitation when evaluating impacts on crop yields, providing a possible explanation for weak connections found in previous studies.

Investing in Greek Agriculture: A Case Study on Farmers in the Regional Unity of Serres, Greece

The Greek Ministry of Food and Agriculture is proceeding in its commitment to apply reforms of the current Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 2014-2020. Among other measures, in November 2017 two fundamental agricultural projects were introduced: the 4.1.1., which focuses on potential investments in fixed assets and machinery, and the 4.2.3., which relates to potential investments in renewable energy resources such as net-metering systems. Investments in agriculture are considered of critical importance given their potential contribution to the Greek economy. The CAP is undoubtedly an integral and crucial part of the general Common European Policy in terms of agriculture. Nevertheless, European policies have attracted intense negative criticism including from distinguished and Nobel Prize-awarded writers and researchers such as Krugman and Stiglitz. This paper focuses on the probability and sustainability of rural investments dealing simultaneously with a profile analysis of the prospective investors. It consists of two main parts. The theoretical first part presents the special characteristics of the two implemented measures. The second part presents the empirical research carried out with farmers of the area, which was conducted via questionnaires. Participants submitted Action Improvement Plans supporting the 4.1.1 or/and 4.1.3 measures. Data were collected through personal interviews and the opportunity sampling method was used. Data were analyzed through descriptive and inducted statistical methods. This research expands the discussions around the rural investments concept.
 Keywords: Common Agricultural Policy, rural development, investments

Direct Payments and Sustainable Agricultural Development—The Example of Poland

This paper aims to explore the importance of the direct-payments scheme as a tool for supporting the sustainable development of agriculture in Poland, and to assess the effects of the 2015 Common Agricultural Policy reform in this context. In particular, the study attempts to investigate the impact of different fund-allocation criteria on the regional distribution of direct payments. The research employs a simulation method in the form of variant analysis (the “what if” model)—a mathematical method with elements of statistical description, based on the complete dataset. For the purposes of one of the variants, a multi-criteria composite indicator was constructed, including stimulants and destimulants of the level of environmental sustainability of agricultural plant production. The analysis was conducted at the NUTS 2 level (voivodeships). The timeframe of the study covered the period 2010–2019. The data published by Statistics Poland and the Agency for the Restructuring and Modernisation of Agriculture were used as the source material. The analysis indicated that the 2015 Common Agricultural Policy reform redistributed public funds away from sustainable agricultural management principles. Applying some basic sustainability criteria in order to internalise environmental externalities would lead to a radical redistribution of first-pillar Common Agricultural Policy payments. The paper concludes that a real greening of the European Union’s agricultural policy is a task still to be accomplished.

Factors affecting multiple climate change adaptation practices of smallholder farmers in lower Eastern Kenya


 
 
 The study investigated the socioeconomic and institutional factors influencing uptake of multiple climate change adaptation practices among smallholder farmers in lower Eastern Kenya. Multistage sampling procedure was used to select 384 small-scale farmers. Percentage and regression were used in the analysis. Among the socio-economic factors, gender positively and significantly influenced adoption of conservation agriculture and water harvesting at 5%, respectively. Among the institutional factors, distance to markets positively or negatively influenced uptake of all the technologies at 1% and 5%, respectively. Due to complementarity in adoption of all the seven adaptation practices, age and distance to nearest markets should be considered during technology dissemination. The study, therefore, calls for agricultural policy reforms that aim at designing incentive programmes which adequately address most of the socioeconomic and institutional issues related to uptake of adaptation practices as well as encouraging off-farm diversification.
 
 

Framing agricultural policy through the EC\u2019s strategies on CAP reforms (1992\u20132017)

The periodic reforms of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) are announced each time by a strategic document in the form of a Communication by the European Commission (EC). The content of the last Communication differs from previous ones, which raises the questions of what frames the EC has employed with respect to its CAP reforms and how these frames have been modified over the past 26 years (from 1991 to 2017) in order to legitimise the preservation of the CAP. This paper tries to fill the gap in the research of frames in the main strategic documents on the CAP by employing comparative historical framing analysis. The results show consistent use of five frames: the policy mechanism frame, farmers’ economic frame, foreign trade frame, budgetary frame, and the societal concerns frame. While they have all remained in use, most have been changed significantly over the years. Throughout the analysed period, the farmers’ economic frame has retained its primacy and continuity, demonstrating the power of the farmers’ lobbies and conservative member states. If in the initial Communications the environment was barely present within the societal concerns frame, it has gained importance in the recent Communications, in addition to other general societal issues, such as climate change, food security and quality, health, digitalisation, innovation, and even migration. By marginalising the policy mechanism frame and replacing it with the implementation model and increasingly emphasising the societal concerns frame with social justifications of the CAP, the EC is trying to legitimise the CAP after 2021.

How has the 2013 decoupled payment reform affected farmland rental values in Northern Ireland?

The degree of capitalisation of agricultural subsidies into land rents has been mainly determined by different payment implementation systems and land markets. The 2013 EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform introduces a transition of Single Farm Payment towards a flat rate system and entitlement reallocation. Based on 2009–2017 Farm Business Survey data, we used the Arellano-Bond dynamic panel data estimation technique to estimate the capitalisation impact of the 2013 CAP reform to decoupled payments (DP) in Northern Ireland (NI) where a short term conacre land rental system is dominant. Our estimates suggest that under the 2013 CAP reform in NI, the capitalisation of DP into land rental prices has continued even when entitlements are less than eligible land areas. Specifically, the marginal effect on rental rates of an additional pound of the DP is 22 pence, increasing to 43 pence following the 2013 CAP reform but only in the first year. Given that about one-third of land area is rented in NI, land capitalisation will be of particular relevance in designing more efficient future subsidy policies.

How changes in cropping intensity affect water usage in an irrigated Mediterranean catchment

Agricultural policies and social change influence irrigation management decisions and their associated effects. The changes in the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union have deeply affected irrigated agriculture in the Mediterranean region. In this region, hydrology is rather complex and the environment particularly vulnerable. We monitored cropping patterns and the water balance in a sprinkler-irrigated catchment in Central Portugal over thirteen irrigation seasons and twelve rainfall seasons. There was wide variation in annual rainfall (from 283 mm to 667 mm) and in the intensity of rainfall events from year to year. A monitoring station at the catchment outlet was installed to measure runoff which, together with field observations, allowed us to compute a water balance for both the rainfed and the irrigation seasons. Changes in cropping intensity led to changes in the depth of irrigation. Irrigation runoff followed irrigation depth and both followed the trend of cropping intensity. Less intensive cropping also reduced the off-site effects of agricultural activities. The runoff coefficient was 0.28 in the rainfed seasons and 0.02 in the irrigation seasons. The changes in the irrigation hydrology and in the off-site effects of agricultural activities in the catchment were caused by changes in cropping intensity induced by the European Union Common Agricultural Policy reforms, rather than by environmental or technical factors.

Reap what you sow: implementing agencies as strategic actors in policy feedback dynamics

Government agencies responsible for policy implementation have expertise on policy practicability, efficiency and effectiveness, and knowledge which is provided to policymakers as feedback. However, we know very little about the feedback dynamics in which implementing agencies provide different types of feedback with the intention that it is used by policymakers, and the strategic decisions underlying these dynamics. This article connects the literature on policy feedback and knowledge use to develop a typology of implementation feedback which can account for these strategic actions. While existing distinctions between positive and negative feedback lead to confusion when applied to implementation feedback, our typology moves beyond this confusion, by classifying implementation feedback on the basis of two dimensions: preferences of implementing agencies and whether feedback is in response an agenda for change, or existing policy instruments. To illustrate the typology, we look at implementation feedback surrounding the post-2013 reform of the Common Agricultural Policy. We find that implementing agencies engage predominantly in problem-solving and mitigating types of implementation feedback, which are the types of feedback most likely to be used instrumentally by policymakers. Moreover, role perception of implementing agencies limits feedback focused on agenda removal, which is more politically sensitive and contested. These insights are important for our understanding of policy feedback on the level of policy instruments and settings. Moreover, future research can use this typology to structure feedback by other actors.

The Effect of Information Literacy on Maize Production: Case study of small-scale farmers in Inonge Village, Kazungula District of Zambia

The study aimed at exploring the impact of information literacy on maize production and focused on a case study of small-scale farmers in Inonge village of Kanzungula District in Southern Province, Zambia. Besides the review of relevant literature, the study conducted a questionnaire-based case study on 20 small-scale farmers and conducted an in-depth interview with one agriculturalist from the Ministry of Agriculture. The analysis of the study showed that farmers need information for various purposes to enhance their agricultural activities, and they use different sources and media to access such information. Many of the farmers, however, are not well aware of modern techniques of agriculture and they seldom use such techniques for farming. Due to some problems such as high rate of illiteracy, inadequate contact with agricultural extension officers, language barrier and bad television and radio reception, farmers are not satisfied in getting agricultural information. The paper concludes that information literacy has an effect on maize production and certain recommendations for policy, practice and further research have been provided for the improvement of information literacy of the farmers in Inonge village. These include government to reconsider public agricultural policy reforms on one hand and for the local communities and their leaderships to reorganize themselves and tackle the information challenges facing them on the other. More focused research was still needed to understand and contextualize Inonge village agricultural challenges and prospects.

An operational Sentinel-2 based monitoring system for the management and control of direct aids to the farmers in the context of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP): A case study in mainland Portugal

The European Union (EU) member states are expected to develop new procedures, based on automatic earth observation data analysis, for the management and control of direct aids to the farmers, as part of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform of 2020. Here, we propose an operational monitoring system based on Sentinel-2 surface reflectance (SR) data and machine learning (ML) algorithms, consisting of a hierarchical approach triggering 3 color-coded warning alerts to distinguish among compliant (green), non-compliant (red), and inconclusive (yellow) parcels comparatively to the farmer’s declaration. A Random Forest (RF) model is applied to a 5-day interpolated SR time series to generate a preliminary crop map, where all the parcels whose predicted and declared crop type match are flagged as compliant. Next, a refinement procedure is adopted to improve the discrimination between temporary and permanent crops. At this stage, VI temporal metrics and texture are used as input to a Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier trained using only the previous compliant parcels. Through a set of decision rules, SVM crop class predictions are flagged as compliant, non-compliant and inconclusive. The system was tested for a significant area in mainland Portugal, using the 2019 Land Parcel Information System (LPIS) data. The system returned 96.5%, 2.5% and 1% of the parcels as compliant, inconclusive, and non-compliant, respectively. Comparison with field inspections for the subsidy control of 2019 revealed that only 1.1% of the correct declarations were classified by the system as non-compliant (5% as admissible value), while less than 5% of the real non-compliant declarations passed through the system (10–20%).

The Sixth Sector Industrialization of Agriculture and the Relay Shipping of Vegetables in Japan

This paper aims to extract lesson from the experiences of Japan for escaping from the middle income trap which many countries in Asia and Africa confront. This paper will review in detail the efforts to increase the income levels of rural and agricultural firms by establishing a value chain under an almost zero growth economy in the 2000s in Japan. After referring to the condition of Japan agriculture and the framework of structural reform of agricultural policy of Japan, the core action schemes of the Sixth Industrialization and Relay Shipping are focused on. The mechanisms of relay shipping of vegetables and the institutions for facilitating the scheme are reviewed in detail. It is revealed that institutional capacity for greater inter-sector and government coordination are essential for implementing the schemes to establish effective and efficient value chain. These are institutional reform and capacity building efforts in Japan. Experiences in Japan reveal that various executing agencies with good governance are required to establish the mechanism of effective resource mobilization and implement reform of value chain. There have been no detail studies on implementing such reform for establishing sustainable value chain in countries where escaping middle income trap is needed. This study should be useful lesson for countries confronting the middle income trap.

Sentinel-1 Time Series for Crop Identification in the Framework of the Future CAP Monitoring

In this upcoming Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform, the use of satellite imagery is taking an increasing role for improving the Integrated Administration and Control System (IACS). Considering the operational aspect of the CAP monitoring process, the use of Sentinel-1 SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) images is highly relevant, especially in regions with a frequent cloud cover, such as Belgium. Indeed, SAR imagery does not depend on sunlight and is barely affected by the presence of clouds. Moreover, the SAR signal is particularly sensitive to the geometry and the water content of the target. Crop identification is often a pre-requisite to monitor agriculture at parcel level (ploughing, harvest, grassland mowing, intercropping, etc.) The main goal of this study is to assess the performances and constraints of a SAR-based crop classification in an operational large-scale application. The Random Forest object-oriented classification model is built on Sentinel-1 time series from January to August 2020 only. It can identify crops in the Walloon Region (south part of Belgium) with high performance: 93.4% of well-classified area, representing 88.4% of the parcels. Among the 48 crop groups, the six most represented ones get a F1-score higher or equal to 84%. Additionally, this research documents how the classification performance is affected by different parameters: the SAR orbit, the size of the training dataset, the use of different internal buffers on parcel polygons before signal extraction, the set of explanatory variables, and the period of the time series. In an operational context, this allows to choose the right balance between classification accuracy and model complexity. A key result is that using a training dataset containing only 3.2% of the total number of parcels allows to correctly classify 91.7% of the agricultural area. The impact of rain and snow is also discussed. Finally, this research analyses how the classification accuracy depends on some characteristics of the parcels like their shape or size. This allows to assess the relevance of the classification depending on those characteristics, as well as to identify a subset of parcels for which the global accuracy is higher.

Environmental Objectives of Spanish Agriculture: Scientific Guidelines for their Effective Implementation under the Common Agricultural Policy 2023-2030

The next reform of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) for the period 2021-2027 (currently extended to 2023-2030) requires the approval by the European Commission of a Strategic Plan with environmental objectives for each Member State. Here we use the best available scientific evidence on the relationships between agricultural practices and biodiversity to delineate specific recommendations for the development of the Spanish Strategic Plan. Scientific evidence shows that Spain should (1) identify clear regional biodiversity targets and the landscape-level measures needed to achieve them; (2) define ambitious and complementary criteria across the three environmental instruments (enhanced conditionality, eco-schemes, and agri-environmental and climate measures) of the CAP's Green Architecture, especially in simple and complex landscapes; (3) ensure that other CAP instruments (areas of nature constraints, organic farming and protection of endangered livestock breeds and crop varieties) really support biodiversity; (4) improve farmers' knowledge and adjust measures to real world constraints; and (5) invest in biodiversity and ecosystem service monitoring in order to evaluate how the Plan achieves regional and national targets and to improve measures if targets are not met. We conclude that direct assessments of environmental objectives are technically and economically feasible, can be attractive to farmers, and are socially fair and of great interest for improving the environmental effectiveness of CAP measures. The explicit and rigorous association of assessments and monitoring, relating specific environmental indicators to regional objectives, should be the main criterion for the approval of the Strategic Plan in an environmentally-focused CAP 2023-2030.—Díaz, M. et al. (2021). Environmental objectives of Spanish agriculture: scientific guidelines for their effective implementation under the Common Agricultural Policy 2023-2030. Ardeola, 68: 445-460.