Agri-environmental Measures Research Articles

Designing successful agri-environmental schemes: A mechanistic analysis of a collective scheme for eco-system services in the Netherlands

In response to the challenges posed by the fragmentation of habitats and loss of native biodiversity, climate change adaptation and mitigation, diverse agri-environmental measures have been initiated across the European Union (EU) with the aim of fostering agricultural ecosystem service delivery. Previous studies adopting a governance perspective have identified various determinants of successful agri-environmental measures. However, the explanatory value of these studies is limited as the causal processes through which context and scheme design affect implementation success remain grey -boxed. This article uses a mechanism-based approach to uncover the causal processes that underlie actions and interactions within agri-environmental governance arrangements and provides insights into the role the interplay between context and scheme design plays in the successful implementation of agri-environmental measures. The empirical focus is the governance of a successful collective agri-environmental scheme in the Netherlands. In opening the grey box of the causal mechanisms that link contextual and scheme design with their results, the paper applies theory building process tracing methods. Results show that implementation success in the case is explained by the interplay between social learning and trust-building mechanisms. We argue that EU and domestic decision-makers aiming to improve the contribution of agri-environmental measures to climate change adaptation and mitigation must consider the contextual conditions that facilitate increased cooperation between stakeholders and, ultimately, successful implementation of measures.

Increasing tree cover on Irish dairy and drystock farms: The main attitudes, influential bodies and barriers that affect agroforestry uptake

Agroforestry has been cited as a means to increase sustainability and biodiversity at a farm level while allowing farming to continue on the same parcel of land. However, even with profitable financial incentives currently in place to promote agroforestry uptake, uptake remains low in Ireland. This highlights that farmer decision-making regarding the adoption of agri-environmental measures do not follow the assumed economic rationality. To better understand the factors that influence farmer decision-making with respect to tree planting on farms, this study used an extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to identify the main attitudes, influencers and intentions of Irish dairy and drystock farmers to planting trees on their land. The barriers to these farmers adopting agroforestry were also investigated. An online cross-sectional survey using a semi-structured questionnaire was administered to a nationally representative sample of the farmers in Ireland. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used to assess the direct and indirect effects of TPB constructs on intention towards adopting agroforestry. According to the SEM analysis, the TPB constructs explained 74% of the variance in intention to plant trees. The results demonstrate that these farmers are mainly driven by their attitude and moral norms which in turn are shaped through the views of their influential people such as advisors and local farmers. The current method of increasing agroforestry uptake is mainly top-down driven and focused on the economic incentives currently in place. New methods to increase agroforestry should focus on encouraging people of influential status within the farming community to promote agroforestry, and through promoting co-design and co-creative systems.

The prospects of innovative agri-environmental contracts in the European policy context: Results from a Delphi study

Innovative agri-environmental contracts are increasingly studied in the literature, but their adoption has been relatively slow and geographically scattered. Action-based agri-environmental measures remain the predominant policy mechanism across Europe. A three-round Policy Delphi study was conducted with policy makers, scientific experts, farmers’ representatives, and NGOs from across 15 different European countries, to investigate how and under which circumstances novel contractual solutions could be implemented more widely. The expert panel perceived result-based and collective contractual elements as the most promising. Although considered beneficial from several aspects, value chain contracts were perceived less relevant to the policy environment. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) Pillar 2 measures were highlighted by the experts as the key policy area to implement novel contracts by national or regional authorities, but Pillar 1 eco-schemes, being launched in the CAP 2023–2027, were also considered as a potentially suitable framework for testing and implementation. The Delphi panel envisaged innovative contracts should be adopted by governments in iterative steps and not as a complete substitute for current payment schemes, but rather as an additional incentive to them. Such an incremental approach allows contractual innovations to capitalise on existing best practices. But it also implies the risk that innovative contracts could remain marginal and fail to substantially change farmers’ behaviour, resulting in a failure to improve environmental conditions.

Different effects of local and landscape context on pollen foraging decisions by two managed orchard pollinators, Osmia cornuta and Bombus terrestris

Populations of managed pollinators are often introduced in agricultural fields to increase pollination levels. Ideally, managed pollinators should show a strong affinity for the target crop, which depends on innate preferences, but also on the availability of alternative co-blooming flower resources. In this study we compared pollen collection in Osmia cornuta and Bombus terrestris populations introduced in orchards, and we analysed how it is affected by local and landscape floral context. Based on pollen preferences and foraging rates of the two species, we expected O. cornuta to collect more fruit tree pollen than B. terrestris and to be less influenced by landscape factors. We sampled 16 orchards of various fruit tree species (almonds, apricots, cherries, apples). In each orchard, we characterized local flower availability and landscape composition, and identified pollen samples from 20 to 30 individuals of each pollinator species. O. cornuta collected a greater proportion of fruit tree pollen than B. terrestris (92% vs 81%), irrespective of the availability of alternative flower resources at the local and landscape levels. The diversity of pollen collected by B. terrestris increased with the availability of alternative flower resources, both at the local and landscape levels, suggesting that some of the foraging by this species took place away from the target orchard. Our results demonstrate that wild flowers do not compete with fruit tree flowers for O. cornuta visitation. Therefore, the use of managed O. cornuta populations to supplement pollination services in orchards is compatible with the implementation of agri-environmental measures (flower strips, ecological focus areas) to promote wild pollinator communities.

Weed Seed Banks in Intensive Farmland and the Influence of Tillage, Field Position, and Sown Flower Strips

Agricultural intensification has caused once diverse arable fields to become species-poor. Their seed banks, which are fundamental for re-establishment and maintenance of plant communities in such repeatedly disturbed environments, are now largely depleted. In order to advise farmers on the successful implementation of agri-environmental measures, as well as reduce potential subsequent costs of continued weed control, understanding seed bank dynamics in relation to aboveground vegetation is essential. We (1) investigated the change in seed bank composition in the field edge and the interior, and (2) analyzed the seed bank in flower strips and adjacent fields in relation to the aboveground vegetation on intensively managed arable farms across Germany. Low-tillage systems contained more plant species and higher seed densities in the seed bank than regularly ploughed fields. Species diversity at the field edge was higher than in the field interior, with a continuous decrease in the number of species and seed density within the first 2 m from the edge. Flower strips can lead to an enrichment of the seed bank, but it is driven by the strong rise in a few common species such as Chenopodium album. To cultivate successful flower strips, we recommend close onsite monitoring, as well as rapid intervention in the case of weed infestation.

A review of methodology for grassland restoration and management with practical examples

Currently, the majority of high nature value Slovenian grasslands have an unfavourable conservation status. Based on the available data from habitat type mappings, the surface of high nature value grasslands (6210(*) – semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates, 6410 – Molinia meadows, and 6510 – lowland hay meadows) at Natura 2000 sites is decreasing. The existing agri-environment measures have been only partly effective in promoting grassland biodiversity. The main threats to biodiversity are driven by various anthropogenic activities, which result in a continuous change in landscape identity, habitat fragmentation, and ecosystem degradation. Therefore, biodiversity restoration became an urgent step in conservation of high nature value grasslands. Multiple pathways may lead to the ecological restoration of grasslands with an altered, uncharacteristic floristic composition, or grasslands with an unfavourable conservation status. In this paper, we present an overview of the methods used in the restoration of grasslands from different parts of Europe. In an adapted form, these methods could also be used for the restoration of Slovenian grasslands. Grasslands may be left to spontaneous succession, which is mainly suitable for small-scale areas, located in the proximity of grasslands with well-preserved biodiversity. However, to re-establish plant communities with specialist species, a more proactive approach is usually required, such as sowing of regional or commercial seed preservation mixtures, transfer of mature plant material, or topsoil transfer from donor sites with appropriate botanical composition. Grassland restoration methods should be carefully thought-out and carried out before the habitat or species is endangered. We conclude that optimally chosen post-restoration management may have an impact that is comparable or even greater than the impact of a suitable restoration method. Nevertheless, maintenance of well-preserved grasslands is still much more cost-effective than restoration of degraded grasslands.

Auswirkungen des Ukrainekrieges auf die EU-Agrarpolitik

Abstract The Ukraine war has had some serious impacts on international agricultural markets, as both Ukraine and Russia play an important role in the world market. Even before the war began, grain prices were high, indicating an already tight supply situation due to pandemic, climate extremes and regional armed conflicts. EU agricultural policy has reacted to ease the situation created by the war. The following article discusses the three potential policy reactions: 1) the suspension of fallow land as an agri-environmental measure, 2) the suspension of biofuel-blending and 3) the reduction of meat consumption.

Do agri-environment measures help improve environmental and economic efficiency? Evidence from Bavarian dairy farmers

AbstractThis study presents an innovative empirical application to the assessment of agri-environment measures on environmental and economic efficiency. Using a multi-equation representation with desirable technology and its accompanying undesirable by-production technology, we investigate the effects of agri-environment measures on farm-level environmental and economic efficiency. A combination of propensity score matching and a difference-in-difference approach is used to estimate the policy effect. The application focuses on a balanced sample of Bavarian dairy farms surveyed between 2013 and 2018. Results suggest that agri-environment schemes do not alter farms’ economic efficiency, whereas environmental efficiency does not seem to be stimulated by schemes participation.

New agri-environmental measures have a direct effect on wildlife and economy on conventional agricultural land.

The objective of this article is to evaluate economic profits along with return on investment and also the impact of newly designed agri-environmental measures (AEM) on the presence of bioindicator species-European hare and roe deer-in comparison to conventionally cultivated agricultural land. The abundance of European hare was, on average, 4.5-6.7 times higher on AEM compared to the standard agricultural regime and 3.5-6.4 times higher in the case of roe deer in 2020 and 2021. From an economic point of view, the highest incomes were found for extensive orchard alleys and standard conventional crops-wheat and rapeseed rotation. The cash flow from extensive orchard was 4.3 times larger and wheat and rapeseed were 3.5 times larger than from the clover grass mixture. Moreover, the lowest value of operational expenses was found in the case of extensive orchard alleys. The payback period ranged from 16.02 years (wheat and rapeseed rotation) to 53.6 years (clover grass mixture). It is crucial not to assess the economic parameters separately but optimize them with sustainable wildlife management and other benefits that provide ecological and efficient directions of AEM for future generations. However, the performed economic analysis highlights the significantly lower incomes of most components of AEM. We see a principal issue of AEMs usage in the lack of strong incentives for farmers to maximize conservation outcomes. Therefore, the AEMs are often placed in locations with presumed low agriculture profit, which is often related to insignificant conservation effects. Thus, the incomparable AEMs profitability compared to conventional agriculture has to be reflected by the agricultural policy at the European Union level and subsidy policy of particular member states.

Effects of Dutch agri-environmental field margins and bird plots on cropland birds

Agri-environmental measures (AEMs) are the main instrument of the Common Agricultural Policy to protect farmland biodiversity, but their effectiveness is questioned. In the Netherlands, AEMs have been implemented by farmers’ collectives since 2016, with the goal to improve the spatial targeting and coordination of measures, and thereby increase their effectiveness. The objective of this paper is to assess the effects of two AEMs, bird plots and field margins, on the abundance of seven cropland bird species targeted by the Dutch agri-environmental policy, and on their total abundance and species richness. The study was carried out in four farmers’ collectives in the provinces of Groningen, Drenthe and Flevoland in the Netherlands. We assessed how bird abundance and species richness measured on AEM plots and control plots were related to management and landscape factors. Furthermore, we assessed whether bird abundance and species richness measured on AEM plots were related to the spatial concentration of other AEM plots in landscapes surrounding AEM plots. With regard to plot management, we found a significant positive effect of field margins on skylarks, yellowhammers, common linnets, common kestrels, total bird abundance and species richness. Bird plots had a significant positive effect on skylarks and total bird abundance. However, western yellow wagtails, northern lapwings and Eurasian oystercatchers did not benefit from the two studied measures, likely because the vegetation in the bird plots and field margins is too high and dense for these species. Landscape factors, such as landscape openness, had contrasting effects on the analysed species, due to their different habitat requirements. Hence, there are no optimal landscapes for all target species, which underlines the need for a fine scale spatial targeting of measures based on species habitat requirements. Furthermore, the spatial concentration of other AEM plots in the landscape surrounding AEM plots had a significant effect for only two species (yellowhammer and western yellow wagtail), and this effect was negative. Thus, our results suggest that - for the studied species and landscapes - the type of measures and landscape in which they are taken are more important than their spatial concentration.

Evidence that agri-environmental measures in arable fields could be a conservation benefit to northern vipers Vipera berus and other reptiles

In Britain, some reptiles species have been formally recorded inhabiting arable field margins but previous reports on the incidence of northern vipers or adders Vipera berus in this situation have been anecdotal. In 2017, reptile monitoring was initiated in a field margin that had been created ten years earlier and was located near two chalk grassland nature reserves with established viper populations. In the first three years of recording, numbers of vipers in the field margin were low and limited to a few juveniles and adults. In the fourth year, there was a noticeable increase in number, which were now represented by all life stages. In the fifth year the population doubled again and then remained stable in the sixth year. A similar encounter trajectory was observed for grass snakes, while slow worms and common lizard encounters had different trajectories. There was some evidence of vipers moving between the nature reserves and field margin, even crossing a road to do so, but at least 75 % of vipers in the field margin were only ever detected there. The arable field was mostly used for cropping cereals and oilseeds but, exceptionally, in the three years from 2016 to 2018 it was put down to herbal leys of red clover and grass. In the USA and continental Europe, red clover is known to be a preferred dietary item of voles Microtus spp and has been associated with vole population increase. It is suggested that the increase in the viper population in the field margin may relate to a rise in the number of voles, which are an important component of the viper diet. Likewise, for grass snakes, small mammals may contribute 25 % or more of their diet. The use of herbal leys may present an important opportunity for the conservation of northern vipers in field margins and other adjacent habitats.

Commercial farm management information systems - A demand-oriented analysis of functions in practical use

The functions of farm management information systems (FMIS) are mostly examined without considering purchasing statistics as an indicator for their actual use and crucial information for FMIS developers and politics. Thus, the present study analyzes categories and functions of commercial FMIS purchased by farmers within a subsidy program for digital technologies in the German federal state of Bavaria. The FMIS were categorized and linked to eleven general functions. Correlations between supplied FMIS functions and farmers’ purchase decisions were evaluated. Finally, the distribution of FMIS functions and categories were weighted by the number of purchases to reflect their demand. The distribution of categories and functions were also compared to previous studies to show current trends. From October 2018 to June 2020, 52 different FMIS were purchased 569 times, dominated by ten FMIS covering 85 % of purchases. The most purchased FMIS targeted the crop domain. Farmers tend to use office and mobile software versions in combination more often. Although web applications seem to increase, native applications, developed for use on a particular platform or device, were still the most inquired application type. There is evidence that certain functions increase farmers’ willingness to use FMIS when they are available. The most purchased FMIS functions were ‘quality assurance’, ‘inventory’ and ‘finance’. The availability of the functions ‘traceability’ and ‘quality assurance’ clearly increased, confirming a positive trend already predicted in a previous study in 2015. In conclusion, functions providing an automated and site-specific mapping, monitoring, and recording of farm processes and production materials to comply with legislative standards were highly requested by farmers, presumably due to increasing cross-compliance requirements of the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union. Future FMIS should therefore include functions for recording and evaluating site-specific agri-environmental measures to support result-based payments and related decision-making.

Field scale biodiversity in relation to the intensity grade of agricultural practices on dairy farms

The present study has been aimed at finding relationships, at the field level, between indicators of the intensity of agricultural practices, computed as carbon footprint (CF), nutrient balance, and intensity use of agrochemicals and indicator-species groups, selected to be representative of biodiversity, such as herbaceous vascular plants, carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae), and butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea). Fields were selected and monitored over 2 years, on six adjacent dairy farms, to represent three cropping systems and five different intensity levels of agricultural practices: mono-cropped maize with high (M-high) or low (M-low) chemical pressure; maize in rotation (M-rot) with alfalfa (Alf) and low chemical pressure; herbaceous strips with no chemical pressure (Strip). Plants (through whole field monitoring), carabids (through pitfall traps) and butterflies (through transects) were sampled in fields and field margins; CF was computed by considering emissions linked to direct and indirect CO2, CH4 and N2O; N, P2O5 and K2O balances, as the difference between the total imported and exported nutrients, were computed at the field level; the agrochemical use intensity was assessed by frequency of application and Load indexes for non-target organisms. The CF was lower in Alf (84 kg CO2-eq/t DM) and Strip (11 kg CO2-eq/t DM) than in all the maize fields (6357, 4499, and 4059 kg CO2-eq/t DM for M-high, M-low and M-rot respectively). The highest nitrogen surplus was observed in M-high (+413 kg/ha), while it was intermediate for M-low and M-rot and the lowest in Alf. The M-high fields showed the highest load indexes for all the selected non-target organisms (mammals, fishes, algae, bees, and earthworms), whereas the lowest load indexes were observed in Strip and Alf. Overall 179 herbaceous species (20 invasive), 45 carabid species, and 39 butterfly species were observed over the 2 years study. The numbers of herbaceous species, of species of interest for pollinators, and of plant families were higher in Strip, Alf and M-rot, whereas the non-native and invasive plants were higher in M-high and Strip. The highest number of carabid species was observed in the Alf and M-low fields, and in Alf, M-low and Strip when the field margins were considered. The highest number of butterfly species was observed in M-rot, Alf and Strip when a single year was considered, whereas it was observed in Alf when the data were pooled over two years. The CF (kg CO2-eq/ha) had a marked negative effect on the plant (r = −0.90, P 0.01), carabid (r = −0.90, P 0.01) and butterfly (r = −0.79, P 0.01) species richness, as well as it positively affected the proportion of non-native invasive plants (r = 0.76, P 0.01). The N surplus negatively affected plant (r = −0.71, P 0.01) and butterfly (r = −0.81, P 0.01) species richness, while positively correlated with proportion of non-native invasive plants observed in the fields (r = 0.80, P 0.01). When all the species from the three indicator-species groups were considered together and plotted against CF (kg CO2-eq/t DM), and against N surplus (kg N/ha), great coefficients of determination were found (R2 = 0.81 and R2 = 0.88, respectively). The current findings provide evidence that well-implemented and diverse cropping systems constitute a benefit for biodiversity at the farm level, without compromising the yield potential, thus offering indications to European decision makers on how to design more specific agri-environmental measures.

Improving sustainability assessment: A context-oriented classification analysis for the wine industry

Assessment tools are a vital instrument and a powerful aid to support our transition towards sustainability. Despite benefits of embracing a more sustainable approach being finally recognised by the wine industry, sustainability issues are still largely unexplored by the sector in comparison to other industries. Acknowledging any sustainability assessment should be linked to the context in which the system being evaluated operates, the notable shortage of instruments designed specifically to evaluate winegrowing systems is perceived as one important gap needed to be addressed. After recognising the immensity and heterogeneity of assessment tools developed until this date by a plethora of other sectors, the goal of this study is to identify instruments that may conform better to the specificities of complex systems such as winegrowing. Beyond a context-oriented exploration, multivariate statistical techniques of Hierarchical and K-means cluster analysis were applied on a representative sample of 42 assessment tools. Out of the seven instruments proposed by the clustering results, one was originally developed to evaluate viticulture (EIOVI), another later adapted and expanded for winegrowing systems (INDIGO), and two already used to assess vineyard management practices (IDEA; INSPIA). Results also showed farm level and indicator-based assessment tools to be largely represented, with spatial coverage and assessment methodology categories showing higher clustering weights. This work contributes to enlighten policymakers to acknowledge the importance of taking context-comprehensiveness into account, when implementing or improving agri-environmental measures and regional policies. Findings can also be used by stakeholders or decision-makers looking to make sustainability more measurable and operational.

Why do French winegrowers adopt soil organic carbon sequestration practices? Understanding motivations and barriers

Soil carbon sequestration (SCS) practices on French agricultural land are part of the portfolio of actions available to policymakers in the field of climate change mitigation and are central to the success of the “4 per 1,000” initiative, launched by France in 2015. To date, there has been limited research considering their applicability to vineyards. A survey was circulated to 506 French winegrowers to identify the adoption rate of six SCS practices in the viticultural sector (applying organic amendments, using biochar, returning pruning residues to the soil, no-tillage, cover cropping, and introducing or preserving hedges in the vineyard) and to explore motives and barriers to adoption. The survey also investigated ways of overcoming barriers to adoption and winegrowers' perception of agri-environment measures. Differences in motivations and barriers between SCS practices were found, and winegrowers themselves suggested a need for improved communication of evidence about SCS practices and better-targeted policy incentives to support adoption.

Guide for agroecological transition & climate change in viticulture, a tool for the sector intended to understand the issues and design the future of viticulture, demonstrating the commitment of French vineyards to environmental transition

In 2014, the French public authorities launched the agroecological project for France. This project aimed at starting the transition of French agriculture towards new production systems that are more efficient in the economic, social, and environmental dimensions. As a result, work involving the French Institute of Vine and Wine (IFV) and the National Institute of Origin and Quality (INAO), led to the publication of a “Guide for agroecology in viticulture” in early 2017. In early 2022, the guide was revised to become the “Guide for Agroecological Transition & Climate Change”. "Representation of the agroecological transition in viticulture", and the new agroecological themes - climate, soil, air, and atmosphere - have been created; the corresponding regulatory or possible agri-environmental measures have been created or updated. This “Guide for agroecological transition & climate change in viticulture” is a reference document accessible to all, which helps to understand the issues and design the future of viticulture. It is also a great tool to demonstrate the commitment of French vineyards to environmental transition. The guide has received the sponsorship of the Ministry of Agriculture and is prefaced by the Minister of Agriculture.

Citizen support for agri-environmental measures motivated by environmental consciousness

Citizens are indispensable stakeholders in rural social-ecological systems and public policies that affect them. For example, the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) promotes agri-environmental measures (AEMs) to reduce agricultural externalities and enhance supply of ecosystem services to benefit society, compensating farmers for incurred costs and income foregone with public money. However, studies on citizen support for AEMs are rather rare. This study assesses citizen preferences for specific AEMs with a discrete choice experiment in a rural area in Flanders, which stands as an example for densely populated, intensive agricultural landscapes. Hybrid choice modelling based on the multidimensional environmental consciousness framework revealed support and significant willingness to pay for all AEMs, although with substantial heterogeneity. Mechanical weeding and increasing nesting opportunities for bees and birds were particularly favored. The affective dimension of environmental consciousness, i.e., environmental attitude, only plays a limited role in shaping the observed preferences. The cognitive dimension is even less relevant for specific preferences. This should be considered if one aims to realize community supported policies. The study presents the applicability of hybrid choice modelling in the field of environmental economics and highlights some methodological issues.

From diverse to simple: butterfly communities erode from extensive grasslands to intensively used farmland and urban areas

The severe biodiversity decline in European agricultural landscapes demands a specific evaluation of the various land-use practices. Many butterflies in Europe, as an important ecological indicator and pollinator taxon, require human interventions to sustain their populations in cultivated landscapes. However, land-use changes and management intensification are currently responsible for their decline. In this study, we compare butterfly communities occurring on 93 sites in seven widely distributed land-use types, viz. extensive meadows and pastures, semi-intensive meadows, vineyards, arable land, settlements and apple orchards. We recorded a high butterfly diversity in supposedly high nature-conservation value (HNV) grasslands (extensive meadows and pastures). All other land-use types showed significantly lower diversity, with decreasing diversity from semi-intensive meadows to apple orchards. Moreover, functional traits uncovered a general trend: extensive grasslands supported communities of more specialized and sedentary species whilst all other non-HNV land-use types showed communities characterized by mobile generalists. Community composition was driven by the land-use type and explained by plant-based indicator values for nutrients and light and temperature variables. Important life-history traits further correlated with site variables confirming the shift from specialists to generalists along increasing land-use intensity gradients and the effect of the thermal environment on phenological traits. We found supporting evidence for the effectiveness of regional Agri-Environmental Measures for butterfly conservation in European cultural landscapes and for the European conservation schemes to focus at least partly on the preservation of HNV grasslands with extensive management. Furthermore, we clearly show the poor ecological state of butterfly communities in more disturbed land-use types (including urban areas) and propose adopting measures to improve butterflies’ conservation in these environments.

More than spatial coordination – How Dutch agricultural collectives foster social capital for effective governance of agri-environmental measures

Collective approaches for agri-environmental measures are known for aiming at spatial coordination of measures to enhance ecological effectiveness. In the Netherlands, governance networks for agri-environmental measures are centered around agricultural collectives that function as intermediaries between individual farmers and governmental as well as non-governmental actors. Against the background that some agricultural collectives are bottom-up and other top-down initiated, we analyzed in how far they can build up social capital through formal and informal relations. We used the Net-Map method to collect qualitative and quantitative data for a Social Network Analysis to uncover the network characteristics that contribute to a certain level of social capital. The results revealed that the umbrella organization links the collectives to the national governmental level and to other collectives. This is especially important for top-down initiated collectives. The facilitation of internal meetings within the collectives is important for social learning. Furthermore, a formalization of the exchange between collectives and stakeholders of nature conservation could strengthen cooperation where traditionally conflicts dominate. By analyzing interaction in detail, the social reasoning to promote collective agri-environmental measures was highlighted. They enable collaboration of different stakeholders at multiple levels to the end that knowledge and resources are bundled.

Defining environmental services from agriculture to better understand the implementation of European agri-environmental policy

This article re-examines the question of environmental services from the perspective of agriculture policy, and in the framework of implementing European Union agri-environmental measures. The article develops a new typology highlighting two different understandings of services: environmental services as ‘services-based activities’ versus environmental services as ‘internalization of externalities’. The first concept is based on the theory of services; the second is based on the theory of externalities. We apply the typology to understand the definition and implementation of agri-environmental policies in Europe. Applying the typology helps to (i) identify the type of environmental services that could be promoted, (ii) clarify the choice of associated policy instruments, and (iii) potentially adapt policy evaluation to the type of environmental services provided by agriculture.