Agglomerations In India Research Articles

Projections of private vehicle ownership, energy demand and vehicular emissions – a study of metropolitan cities in India

Urban agglomerations in India have witnessed significant growth in private vehicle ownership since the turn of this century. Intense urban road transport will have stern implications on air quality, GHG emissions, energy demands and, transport infrastructure. This study investigates the relationship between income and vehicle ownership rate for five metropolitan cities in India using a non-linear Gompertz functional framework. Medium-term scenarios of private vehicle (cars and two-wheelers) ownership, vehicle stock, energy demand and tailpipe emissions under multiple scenarios are envisaged by deriving ownership saturation based on city area and land use pattern. The results show a significant increase in vehicle stock resulting in a substantial rise in energy demand and vehicular emissions by 2035. However, the adoption of electric vehicles is expected to truncate this surge. Delhi is projected to saturate during this period while other cities are expected to saturate after 2035. The study also highlights transport policy and investment spheres to reduce private vehicle dependency.

Exploring the drivers of urban expansion in a medium-class urban agglomeration in India using the remote sensing techniques and geographically weighted models

Rapid urbanization urges the immediate attention of policymakers to ensure sustainable city development. Understanding the urban growth drivers is essential to address effective strategies for urbanization-related challenges. This work aims to study Raiganj’s urban development and the factors associated with this expansion. This study employed global logistic regression (LR) and geographical weighted logistic regression (GWLR) to explore the role of different factors. The results showed that the role of the central business district (covariate >-1), commercial market (covariate >-3), and police station (covariate >-4) were significant to the development of new built-up areas. In the second period, major roads (covariate >-2) and new infrastructures (covariate >-4) became more relevant, particularly in the eastern and southern areas. GWLR was more accurate in assessing the different factors’ impact than LR. The results obtained are essential to understanding urban expansion in India’s medium-class cities, which is critical to effective policies for sustainable urbanization.

Wastewater irrigation in India: Current status, impacts and response options

Wastewater generated from urban agglomerations in India is estimated to be 26.4 km3 annually and 28% of it is treated. This has a potential to irrigate about 2.1 million-ha agricultural land, contribute 4 million Mg of plant nutrients, generate 2.8 million person-days of employment and reduce green house gas (GHG) emission by 73.7 million Mg CO2-e. Farmers in peri-urban areas depend largely on raw and partially treated wastewater for livelihood via raising high value crops such as vegetable, fodders and fruits. Both controlled and uncontrolled disposal of waste waters leads to progressive and irreversible contamination of soils, surface and ground waters with pathogens, heavy metals and organic micro-contaminants and consequently their bio-transfer through the chain: sewage-soil-vegetation-animal-humans. This has led to the development of a considerable assortment of regulatory measures and guidelines aimed at reducing or eliminating wastewater related health risks. Because conventional treatment technologies are cost prohibitive, alternate methods based on biological and land treatment systems are being advocated. Since soils are the most logical sinks for wastewater, efforts are to optimise rates and methods of water application, quantify the sink capacity of soils to immobilise contaminants and protect the quality of produce. Reuse of diluted or undiluted wastewaters improves crop productivity by 10–36% though production sustainability depends on soil type, climatic conditions, crop grown, irrigation techniques and socio-political factors. Disposal of wastewater in tree plantations and constructed wetlands with consequent removal of toxic metals/compounds using hyper-accumulators/accumulators plants provide for a possible alternative. Ignoring the associated risks, using pisciculture for sewage disposal is quite popular in high rainfall areas. With growing water scarcities, it is utmost important to recognise wastewaters as a valuable resource and formulate appropriate policy initiatives considering the health and livelihood issues of the per-urban farmers and consumers of food as well as risks to environment.

Effect of Lockdown Amid COVID-19 on Ambient Air Quality in 16 Indian Cities

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected severely the economic structure and health care system, among others, of India and the rest of the world. The magnitude of its aftermath is exceptionally devastating in India, with the first case reported in January 2020, and the number has risen to ~31.3 million as of July 23, 2021. India imposed a complete lockdown on March 25, which severely impacted migrant population, industrial sector, tourism industry, and overall economic growth. Herein, the impacts of lockdown and unlock phases on ambient atmospheric air quality variables have been assessed across 16 major cities of India covering the north-to-south stretch of the country. In general, all assessed air pollutants showed a substantial decrease in AQI values during the lockdown compared with the reference period (2017–2019) for almost all the reported cities across India. On an average, about 30–50% reduction in AQI has been observed for PM2.5, PM10, and CO, and maximum reduction of 40–60% of NO2 has been observed herein, while the data was average for northern, western, and southern India. SO2 and O3 showed an increase over a few cities as well as a decrease over the other cities. Maximum reduction (49%) in PM2.5 was observed over north India during the lockdown period. Furthermore, the changes in pollution levels showed a significant reduction in the first three phases of lockdown and a steady increase during subsequent phase of lockdown and unlock period. Our results show the substantial effect of lockdown on reduction in atmospheric loading of key anthropogenic pollutants due to less-to-no impact from industrial activities and vehicular emissions, and relatively clean transport of air masses from the upwind region. These results indicate that by adopting cleaner fuel technology and avoiding poor combustion activities across the urban agglomerations in India could bring down ambient levels of air pollution at least by 30%.

Internal Migration in India: A trend of Million-Plus Cities in 2011

In the present times of the urbanising world, humans' migration plays a decisive role in urban centres' evolution, other than natural population growth. The highly urbanised centres across the globe, commonly labelled as the million-plus cities, act as a decisive pull factor for the migration among individuals, as these centres are the hubs of economic activities and immense opportunities. The present study made an effort to evaluate the internal migration trend of million-plus cities and their respective urban agglomerations in India. The migration data released by the Census of India was being used for 2001 and 2011 in the analysis. The growth rate and proportional percentage increase both total and gender-wise, of migrants were assessed. The findings depicted the influx of proportional in-migrants was more in southern India than in the north. Furthermore, in-migrants growth was more in the newly formed million-plus cities than the old established ones regardless of the large migrant base in their total population.

COVID-19 lockdowns induced land surface temperature variability in mega urban agglomerations in India.

The COVID-19 pandemic forced a nationwide lockdown in India for months when close to 1.3 billion people were confined to their homes. An abrupt halt in the majority of the urban activities reduced the generation of anthropogenic heat which often exacerbates the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect in the urban pockets of the country. We studied the lockdown impact on seven highly populated and polluted mega urban agglomerations across India, namely Delhi, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, Bengaluru and Chennai, using near-anniversary Landsat 8 data. The results revealed that the lockdowns have improved the air quality and reduced the Land Surface Temperature (LST) and hence the UHI effect over these cities. Each of the cities experienced an improved Air Quality Index (AQI) ranging from 18 to 151 units except Chennai (with a marginal 8 units increase in AQI), a decrease in mean LST in the range of 0.27 °C to 7.06 °C except Kolkata which showed an increment by ∼4 °C, and a reduction in daily averaged air temperature ranging from 0.3 °C to 10.88 °C except Hyderabad which witnessed an increase of 0.09 °C during the lockdown (April 2020) compared to the previous years (April 2019 and 2018). Delhi exhibited the maximum positive impact of the lockdown in all aspects with two-fold improved air quality, and Ahmedabad showed the least improvement. In addition to the variations in regional land use and land cover and proportion of essential industries that remained operational throughout the lockdown, the geographic location, topography, local meteorology and climate were some of the other factors also responsible for either aiding or overcompensating the large scale LST variabilities observed in these cities. These results hint at an unprecedented opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of periodic planned lockdowns as a possible mitigating measure to reduce LST spikes and degraded air quality in urban areas in the future.

Foreign direct investment and industrial agglomeration: Evidence from India

This study analyses the spatial and sectoral distribution of Greenfield Foreign Direct Investment (GFDI) and its impact on industrial agglomeration in India for the time period 2006–2015. We employ a unique dataset obtained by merging GFDI data from FDI Markets and plant level data from Annual Survey of Industries (ASI). We find that the Indian manufacturing sector shows signs of industrial dispersion rather than agglomeration throughout the sample period. Likewise, the spatial distribution pattern of GFDI also shows a decline in regional concentration and, interestingly, GFDI also seems to target new destinations. We also find that the increased spatial spread of GFDI leads to an industrial dispersion in Indian manufacturing industries.

Factors influencing COVID-19 case burden and fatality rates findings from secondary data analysis of major urban agglomerations in India

In December 2019, SARS COV-2 which originated in the Chinese city of Wuhan achieved pandemic proportions and spread rapidly to countries through International air traffic causing acute respiratory infection and deaths. Presence of International airports, demography, health financing and human developments factors were assumed to influence COVID-19 cases burden and case fatality rate (CFR). So, this study was undertaken to find a association between these factors and COVID-19 cases and deaths. The study used 48 districts using purposive sampling as proxy for cities and used secondary data analysis. Data was obtained for various variables like demographic, Health Financing, Indices and Testing infrastructure, COVID cases burden and case fatality from trusted sources. Descriptive statistics correlational statistics using Pearsons coefficient students T was used to describe, correlate and find significant difference in the data. The analysis found a significant difference between COVID cases burden in districts with International Airports (p<0.039) and those without it. Positive correlation of population density (r=0.65) with COVID-19 case burden and negative correlation of case fatality rate with NITI Aayogs health index (r=-0.12), human development index (HDI) (r=-0.18), per-capita expenditure on health (r=-0.072) and a correlation of r=0.16 was observed for gross state domestic product. Decongestion of cities through perspective urban planning is the need of the hour. Stricter quarantine measures in those districts with international airports can help reduce the transmission. Negative correlation of HDI and NITI Aayogs health index with CFR emphasizes the importance of improvements in social determinants of health.

Bioassessment in the aquatic ecosystems of highly urbanized agglomeration in India: An application of physicochemical and macroinvertebrate-based indices

Abstract Benthic macroinvertebrates (B-macros) from fourteen sampling sites from lentic (lake), intermediate (canal) and lotic (river) ecosystems of Jamshedpur Steel City (JSC) were analyzed, to monitor the changes in their distribution in relation to water quality. JSC is one of the largest Urban Agglomeration in India, which houses more than 1200 industries. The effect of pollution on B-macros communities was analyzed by comparing the physicochemical characteristics (pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), alkalinity (ALK), dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand ( BOD 5 20 ), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), and chloride (Cl-)) with that of diversity (Shannon Index and Simpson’s diversity index) and biotic indices (Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP), Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT), and Family Biotic Index (FBI)). Correlation analysis between the abundance of B-macros and that of physicochemical parameters indicated that EC and ALK are the driving factors for the abundance of B-macros. Scatter plots between physicochemical parameters and indices exhibited that ASPT was the most reliable method for bioassessment. This study would be useful for developing countries like India, where water management practices are almost negligible. Also, the use of B-macros in bioassessment will not only enable the policymakers and regulating agencies to understand the pollution level of any aquatic ecosystem, but also help them to add knowledge regarding the variety of aquatic fauna found in the ecosystems affected with several industrial and domestic pollutants. Moreover, this study will provide a reference to researchers for further identification of B-macros up to genus or species level.

Spatio-temporal variation in the concentration of atmospheric particulate matter: A study in fourth largest urban agglomeration in India

Abstract Exposure to atmospheric particulate matter is still a serious concern in the developing countries, as the incremental concentrations of PM10 continues to exceed. Limited literature has been reported on spatial – temporal variability of PM10 and its relationship with vegetation using remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) techniques. The data for the study were collected in four geographically distinct areas (i.e., Adyar, Anna Nagar, Kilpauk and T. Nagar)in the fourth largest urban agglomeration, Chennai city, India during 2013 to 2018. The spatial variability has been identified for PM10 in selected locations, as well as concentration variation in different seasons was also investigated. It was observed that the levels of PM10 pollution were higher within vicinity of the industrial zone. However, the seasonal variation especially dry monsoon season effect makes the level higher in concentration. The changes in vegetative cover in the study area were studied using Landsat-8 imageries for the period 2013–2018. The Landsat-8 imageries were used to obtain the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), which aids in studying the vegetative cover. The study shows that with increase in NDVI values there is a decrease in the concentration of particulate matter. This shows that measures need to be taken in the study area to increase the vegetative cover, so that the effect of pollutants can be alleviated in the atmosphere.

Economic geography and the scaling of urban and regional income in India

We undertake an exploration of the economic income (gross domestic product) of Indian districts and cities based on scaling analyses of the dependence of these quantities on associated population size. Scaling analysis provides a straightforward method for the identification of network effects in socioeconomic organization, which are the tell-tale signs of cities and urbanization. For districts, a sub-state regional administrative division in India comprising both urban and rural regions, we find almost linear scaling of gross domestic product with population, a result quite different from urban functional units in other national contexts. Using deviations from scaling, we explore the behaviour of these regional units to find strong distinct geographic patterns of economic behaviour. We characterize these patterns in detail and connect them to the literature on regional economic development for a diverse subcontinental nation such as India. Given the paucity of economic data for urban agglomerations in India, we use a set of assumptions to create a new dataset of gross domestic product based on districts, for large cities. This reveals superlinear scaling of income with city size, as expected from theory, while displaying similar underlying patterns of economic geography observed for district economic performance. This analysis of the economic performance of Indian cities is severely limited by the absence of higher-fidelity, direct city level economic data. We discuss the need for standardized and consistent estimates of the size and change in urban economies in India, and point to a number of proxies that can be explored to develop such indicators.

Estimation of Regional Groundwater Discharge and Baseflow Contribution in Northern Stretch of the Yamuna River System of Delhi

Urban agglomerations in India of late have started facing drinking and domestic water scarcity. The city state of Delhi has witnessed accelerated urbanization and an exponential growth in population. In this context, it is desired to locate sustainable groundwater resources in Delhi. This communication examines the northern stretch of the Yamuna floodplain system in Delhi with respect to source sustainability. An aquifer can sustain extensive exploitation only if it is replenished regularly. Though the river floodplain system gets recharged by monsoon flooding, the recharged water may not sustain the source aquifer until the end of summer. Thus before exploitation all floodplains have to be examined vis-a-vis regional groundwater dynamics. In this context it was found that the floodplain system in the northern stretch of River Yamuna receives considerable regional groundwater flow. Some of this also contributes to river flow. The present study has estimated regional groundwater flow in this aquifer stretch of the Yamuna river system as 10,513,460 m 3 /yr (~11 MCM/yr). Besides, the yearly baseflow contribution to the Yamuna in the study area has been estimated as 518,472 m 3 /yr (~0.5 MCM/yr).

Economic Geography and the Scaling of Urban and Regional Income in India

We undertake an exploration of the economic income (Gross Domestic Product, GDP) of Indian districts and cities based on scaling analyses of the dependence of these quantities on associated population size. Scaling analysis provides a straightforward method for the identification of network effects in socioeconomic organization, which are the tell-tale of cities and urbanization. For districts, a sub-state regional administrative division in India, we find almost linear scaling of GDP with population, a result quite different from urban functional units in other national contexts. Using deviations from scaling, we explore the behavior of these regional units to find strong distinct geographic patterns of economic behavior. We characterize these patterns in detail and connect them to the literature on regional economic development for a diverse subcontinental nation such as India. Given the paucity of economic data for Urban Agglomerations in India, we use a set of assumptions to create a new dataset of GDP based on districts, for large cities. This reveals superlinear scaling of income with city size, as expected from theory, while displaying similar underlying patterns of economic geography observed for district economic performance. This analysis of the economic performance of Indian cities is severely limited by the absence of higher-fidelity, direct city level economic data. We discuss the need for standardized and consistent estimates of the size and change in urban economies in India, and point to a number of proxies that can be explored to develop such indicators.

Comment on “Geographic Concentration in Indian Manufacturing and Service Industries: Evidence from 1998 to 2013”

Comment on “Geographic Concentration in Indian Manufacturing and Service Industries: Evidence from 1998 to 2013”

Factors for Sustenance of Livelihood Entrepreneurs

Abstract It is estimated that by 2030 nearly 50% of India’s population will live in cities. Consequently 70% of the employment will be generated in the cities. In such a scenario it is important to look at how cities can help businesses. This paper focuses on understanding sustainability of livelihood entrepreneurs in Chennai, capital city of Tamil Nadu, and one of the largest Urban Agglomerations in India. The study is situated in one of the densely populated business districts in the city that is home to diverse businesses and accounting for revenues of nearly Rs.200,000 million annually. The specific objective is to look at the food-vendors with the objectives: (i) to understand the viability and sustainability of the business; (ii) to enumerate risk elements of the business and see how they are addressed; and (iii) to recommend the scope for improvement and opportunity from a policy perspective. The findings are based on field work done in the business district and gains importance in the context of the Sustainable Development Goal 8 which looks at promoting sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all; and Sustainable Development Goal 16 which works to promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. The paper helps in gaining a perspective of how livelihood entrepreneurism can be promoted - helping in using an opportunity that is sustainable as also pursuing one’s passion.

Urban Geography and Scaling of Contemporary Indian Cities

This paper attempts to create a first comprehensive analysis of the integrated characteristics of contemporary Indian cities, using scaling and geographic analysis over a set of diverse indicators. We use data at the level of Urban Agglomerations in India from the Census 2011 and from a few other sources to characterize patterns of urban population density, infrastructure, urban services, economic performance, crime and innovation. Many of the results are in line with expectations from urban theory and with the behaviour of analogous quantities in other urban systems in both high and middle-income nations. India is a continental scale, fast developing urban system, and consequently there are also a number of interesting exceptions and surprises related to both specific quantities and strong regional patterns of variation. We characterize these patterns in detail for crime and innovation and connect them to the existing literature on their determinants in a specifically Indian context. The paucity of data at the urban level and the absence of official definitions for functional cities in India create a number of limitations and caveats to any present analysis. We discuss these shortcomings and spell out the challenge for a systematic statistical data collection relevant to cities and urban development in India.

Mental Wellbeing and Self-reported Symptoms of Reproductive Tract Infections among Girls

This study examined the self-reported mental wellbeing among slum-dwelling adolescents in Western India and asked whether adolescent postmenarcheal girls’ mental wellbeing and self-reported symptoms suggestive of reproductive tract infections (RTIs) were associated. A sub-section of a cross-sectional personal interview survey among unmarried 10–18-year-old adolescents (n= 85) in a slum in the city of Nashik was analyzed. Logistic regression models were used to assess the associations between sociodemographic variables, physical health indicators, and adolescent postmenarcheal girls’ mental wellbeing. Nearly every other postmenarcheal girl reported having experienced symptoms suggestive of RTIs during the last twelve months. Adolescent postmenarcheal girls’ mental health and some aspects of somatic health appear to be closely interrelated. Understanding the relationship between adolescent mental wellbeing and reproductive health in low-income countries requires further investigation. Health service development in growing informal urban agglomerations in India and beyond should provide combined mental and reproductive health services for adolescents.

STUDY OF TEMPERATURE PROFILE ON VARIOUS LAND USE AND LAND COVER FOR EMERGING HEAT ISLAND

Hyderabad city, the fourth most populous city and sixth most populous urban agglomeration in India is emerging into a megacity with the population set to cross the 10 million mark by 2015. The city is currently in the midst of unprecedented urbanization as it has grown into a cyber-capital, and is now known as the tricity of Cyberabad- Hyderabad and Secunderabad. Commanding a massive area of 1905 km 2 , the city suffers from a host of problems including heavy population growth, over-use of basic amenities and resources, sprawl, depletion of ground water and climatic changes attributed to enhanced greenhouse gases. This study evaluates the growth of the urban built up areas within the city using remote sensing and GIS, apart from analyzing the temperature profile across various land use and land cover. Landsat 5 TM data of 1989, 1999 and 2009 were used to understand the temperature changes over different land use and land cover. The study shows a 67% loss in water bodies while the urban built up areas have grown by 270%. The temperature profile also shows a dip in temperature while encountering water bodies, gardens and parks.

Evolution of on-road vehicle exhaust emissions in Delhi

For a 40-year horizon (1990–2030), on-road vehicle exhaust emissions were evaluated, retrospectively and prospectively, for the largest urban agglomeration in India – the Greater Delhi region with a combined population of 22 million in 2011 (Delhi along with Ghaziabad, Noida, Greater Noida, Faridabad and Gurgaon). Emissions of particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) reached their peak during late 1990s through early 2000s after which they reduced significantly through year 2012. On the other hand, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon dioxide show an increasing trend. The most reduction in emissions between 1998 and 2012 occurred as a result of implementation of four sets of vehicular emission standards, removal of lead, reduction of sulfur content, mandatory retirement of older commercial vehicles, and conversion of diesel and petrol run public transport vehicles to compressed natural gas. In addition, changes in the vehicular technology have also contributed to controlling emissions especially in case of auto-rickshaws and motorized two-wheelers, which changed from two-stroke to four-stroke. The rising trend of NOx along with the presence of VOCs indicates increasing tendency to form ground-level ozone and as a result, smog in the region. We predict that the current regime of vehicle technology, fuel standards, and high growth rate of private vehicles, is likely to nullify all the past emission reductions by the end of 2020s.

Modeling Store Characteristics as Antecedents of Impulse Purchase

This research intended to give a specific answer to what in-store factors favorably influence impulse buying that retailers could use to their advantage. Indeed, it has a hedonic approach, yet, it is quite valuable from the retailer's point of view. Many retailers face a problem - that in spite of strong footfalls, billing remains bleak, yet others have high billing proportion to footfalls. This research is an effort to solve this problem . It was hypothesized that numerous variables, controllable by retailers, are available inside a store and have the potential to influence impulse purchasing. An intercept survey at retail agglomerations in India was conducted, and detailed literature exploration was done to identify the in-store variables. These variables were reduced to ten in-store factors through factor analysis based on the shoppers' response towards them. Regression modeling was done to predict impulse purchase based on in-store factors. The in-store factors were found to influence impulse purchase significantly. The relative weight of these factors was also found so that the retailers could prioritize their resources. Out of these ten factors, a few were found to be acting covertly, whereas the others were well known to shoppers. If retailers know and properly manage these in-store factors, they could favorably influence impulse buying, leading to an improved footfall-billing ratio. A huge proportion of retail purchasing is known to be impulse driven. If retailers understand the antecedents of impulse buying, they could harness it to their benefit. Drivers of retail impulse buying are known to be multidimensional. Social, cultural, personal, situational - all contribute their bit in influencing impulse buying. This research focuses on store characteristics that are tools in the hands of retailers for influencing impulse buying.