Organizational Change Agents Research Articles

A Selected Review of the Underpinnings of Ethics for Human Performance Technology Professionals - Part One: Key Ethical Theories and Research

Professionals serving as internal and external consultants, whether as performance technologists, human resource development facilitators, training specialists, organizational development change agents, or quality improvement engineers, are uniquely positioned to influence ethical awareness in the workplace. Understanding the basic underpinnings of ethical theory and empirical research in ethics will give professionals a grounding in the ethical implications of their interventions as they practice their craft. This is especially true for the practice of Human Performance Technology. This article is a review of the basic ethical theory and relevant empirical research. Further, the article serves as a reveille for HPT professionals. They know the systems and strategies of HPT. By examining these in the context of ethics, they may broaden their “vantage points” (Dean 1992b) on these systems and strategies so they can see more precisely how ethical issues influence performance and how what they do can influences the ethical climate of an organization.

Practical Methods for Extracting Explicit Design Rules Grounded in the Experience of Organizational Managers

The concept of design rules, an element of design science, helps convert the tacit knowledge of organizational change agents into explicit, actionable knowledge. Design rules are heuristic statements in the form: If you want to achieve outcome Y in situation S, something like X might help. Research suggests that experts tend to think using such heuristic rules, and the authors propose that this is also true for organizational managers leading successful change programs. Although design science approaches aim to build a body of design rules applicable in a variety of settings, little has been done to explore how design rules are elaborated from particular change efforts. The authors describe experience in testing four methods for extracting explicit design rules from existing programs of organizational change. They found this to be both a promising field of research and a potentially valuable methodology for practicing managers and change leaders in organizations.

Answers for questions to come: reflective dialogue as an enabler of strategic innovation

PurposeTo conceptualize and theorize dialogue's diagnostic as well as generative functions for strategic innovation and organizational change.Design/methodology/approachConceptual development with case illustration.FindingsStrategic innovation requires shifts in existing mental models of organizational actors that underlie the overall strategy paradigm of a firm. Dialogue as a form of reflective conversation enables actors to alter managers' mental models through conscious, critical exploration.Research limitations/implicationsConceptual framework introduces reflective dialogue, as a crucial processual element for encouraging shifts in mental maps and as a necessary, but not sufficient condition for strategy innovation; provides an analytical framework for enhancing understanding of the emergent processes of strategic innovation, and for studying shifts in organizational actors' mental models.Practical implicationsProvides organizational change agents and strategists with perspectives and frameworks for appreciating and fostering reflective dialogue in the context of strategic thinking and innovation.Originality/valueConcept of reflective dialogue and associated frameworks link micro‐levels and macro‐levels of strategy innovation and address critical process elements.

Limitations of cleaner production programmes as organisational change agents. II. Leadership, support, communication, involvement and programme design

This is the second in a two-part paper that discusses the results of an evaluation of a multi-company, multi-sector ‘cleaner production’ (CP) or ‘pollution prevention’ (PP) demonstration project undertaken in New Zealand (NZ). Part I provided an overview of the demonstration project and the evaluation methods, and discussed the limitations of the project in terms of commitment and on-going improvement. This part discusses further limitations, specifically as they relate to leadership, support, communication and involvement within participating businesses. Part II also considers the issue of standardisation, suggesting that CP/PP programmes be designed so that they are compatible with the needs, activities and culture of each participating organisation. These further limitations are discussed in terms of key developments in organisation theory with the intent of providing insight into how outcomes could be improved. Part II also compares the extent to which areas for improvement are covered in traditional CP/PP programmes and common change management models. The paper concludes with the presentation of a framework that could potentially be used to overcome the limitations discussed in both papers. The framework draws on a range of change management models and focuses on the need for CP/PP programmes to bring about an iterative, critically reflective cycle of learning. The framework components include: a diagnostic phase (to enable the programme to be customised); visioning (to engage and involve all staff); iterative use of the vision (to motivate, inspire and drive continuous improvement); distinctive tasks (to enhance involvement); participatory design of the programme (to enhance commitment); and inclusion of top level managers at key stages in the process (to maximise leadership, commitment, progress and support). While the framework is suggested as an alternative to traditional CP/PP change management models, it is not intended to be prescriptive. It is intended rather to elicit critical reflection amongst practitioners and to encourage them to adopt a more strategic approach to their work with businesses.

Limitations of cleaner production programmes as organisational change agents I. Achieving commitment and on-going improvement

This is the first in a two-part paper that discusses the results of an evaluation of a 2-year ‘cleaner production’ (CP) demonstration project undertaken in New Zealand (NZ). The project's scale and methods were consistent with international best practice and the methods used were consistent with those advocated in traditional CP or ‘pollution prevention’ (PP) guides and manuals. On the surface, the project could be considered to have been successful. Like other apparently successful demonstration projects carried out elsewhere, the demonstration businesses identified a range of options that improved their environmental, economic and social performance (including savings of over NZ$4 million per annum, and significant reductions in materials, water and energy use, and improvements in productivity). However, a more in-depth evaluation of the project raised significant questions about the ability of traditional CP/PP programme components to bring about durable change. The evaluation identified a set of key internal organisational factors that strongly contributed towards the uptake of CP and affected the potential for on-going improvement. They were commitment, leadership, support, communication, staff involvement and programme design. This part of the paper (Part I) provides an overview of the project, as well as the methodology used in the evaluation. It also includes a discussion of the results particularly as they relate to commitment and on-going improvement. Part II discusses the remaining key internal organisational factors. It also presents a framework that could potentially be used to enhance the performance of CP or similar types of programmes, particularly with regard to the key factors identified.

A Longitudinal Study of Environmental Attitudes of Women and Gender Diversification in the U.S. Forest Service 1990–1996

Abstract The USDA Forest Service has been dominated by white, male foresters. Beginning in the mid-1970s, the agency was compelled legally and morally to begin diversifying its workforce by race, gender, and profession. Concurrent with workforce diversification efforts, the agency confronted demands from the courts, Congress, and interest groups to change national forest management by emphasizing national forest preservation over the production of commodities such as timber and livestock forage. This study examines the role of women as potential organizational change agents by analyzing survey data collected from two national studies of the Forest Service in 1990 and 1996. Results from the 1996 study indicate that women continue to exhibit higher levels of general environmental concern than men, suggesting their role as potential “saviors” in helping the agency to make the transition to increased emphasis on ecosystem management. Conversely, diversification of the Forest Service workforce continues to be highly contentious, with some employees feeling that the recruitment and promotion of women without adequate training and/or experience have left the agency unprepared to meet complex demands. The inability of the Forest Service to satisfy multiple, conflicting constituencies in the face of agency downsizing suggests the role of women as “scapegoats,” whose perceived lack of experience is responsible for agency shortcomings. The authors suggest that the historical convergence of workforce diversification with changes in national forest policy inevitably place women in the conflicting roles of both “saviors” and “scapegoats.” FOR. SCI. 47(2):246–257.

Analyzing and realigning organizational culture

Presents a process developed by the authors that can be used to help organizational leaders and change agents make alignments between their “espoused” and “existing” organizational cultures. First we present an overview of the theoretical model from which the process is derived, and how we attempt to translate the theory into personal mental models for those involved in the change process. Next, we describe an action‐oriented process we call “walkies and talkies” used for analyzing what Schein refers to as artifacts and espoused values. Finally, we present a range of change initiatives that may be used if the culture analysis reveals any misalignments – “tune‐ups” are actions that can be taken during the analysis or immediately thereafter. “Re‐builds” are intermediate actions that take one to six months to complete. “Replacements” are longer‐term interventions requiring significant investments of time and resources, and represent change at its deepest level.

Educating to manage the accelerated change environment effectively: Part 2.

Without appropriate educational preparation, nurse managers may not have the competencies to manage accelerated change effectively. Part 1 of this two-part series provided the condensed findings from an extensive review of nursing, business, and higher education literature. Part 2 describes the results of a Delphi study whereby baccalaureate-prepared nurse manager experts and nurse educator experts in baccalaureate nursing programs validated what linear and nonlinear change management concepts they believed were relevant in managing change in today's dynamic environment. Staff development educators and administrators, as organizational change agents, can use the validated concepts to develop educational offerings to promote effective change management.

Educating to manage the accelerated change environment effectively: Part 1.

Without appropriate educational preparation, nurse managers may not have the competencies to effectively manage accelerated change that is so pervasive on the front lines of healthcare organizations in transformation. Part 1 of this article describes the findings from an extensive literature review of nursing, business, and higher education literature on the subject of change management. A comprehensive reference list is provided. Part 2 reports the results of a Delphi study from which baccalaureate-prepared nurse manager experts and nurse educator experts in baccalaureate nursing programs validated what linear and nonlinear change management concepts they believed were relevant in managing change in today's dynamic environment. With key roles as organizational change agents, staff development educators and administrators can use the validated concepts to develop educational offerings to promote effective change management.

Moving out of the `Armchair': Developing a Framework to Bridge the Gap between Feminist Theory and Practice

This article describes how a research team used feminist organization theory in its work with organizational change agents to further gender equity in their organizations. We describe the theoretical framing that initially informed this action-research project, what we learned in the early encounters inside the organization and the framework we ultimately developed to help bridge the gap between feminist theory and practice. The framework outlines four approaches to the `gender' problem in organizations and their respective implications for organizational change. We also describe our early attempts to translate this frame-work into knowledge that change agents could use.

Virtual auditing agents: the EDGAR Agent challenge

Intelligent agents can be used as agents of organizational change. This potential exists in the domain of accounting audit, where much of what is currently done manually in batch mode could be done continuously and on-line. We discuss the use of intelligent Internet agents as a way of changing and expanding audit practices in the virtual world. A quality/service framework is presented that suggests ways that accounting firms can evolve in this era of on-line opportunities. The EDGAR Agent is presented as an example of an intelligent Internet agent that gathers financial information. The challenges involved in the development of the EDGAR Agent are analyzed, providing insight into the practical aspects of agent technology designed for a specific business domain. A test of the agent is presented, with comments and suggestions from financial practitioners that will be integrated into the research stream.

The relationship between charismatic leadership behaviors and organizational commitment

This article reports on a study to measure the relationship between the six leadership behaviors identified by Conger and Kanunago and the two organizational commitment components identified by Porter and Smith. A total of 245 respondents from six organizations in south‐eastern USA participated in the study. Pearson correlations of the factors from the two scales were computed and revealed that five of the six C‐K factors were significantly correlated with the two commitment factors. These findings indicate leader’s sensitivity to member’s needs is related to organizational commitment, having a clear vision and articulating it seems related to commitment, and managers need to be clear about the goals and values of the organization. This study has implications for the strategic role of managers as change agents in organizations.

Transforming the character of public organizations: techniques for change agents

Getting Grounded in Organizational Transformation Leading Public Sector Organizations from the Inside Out A Holistic View of Organization Change Techniques for Collecting and Analyzing Data Building Trust and Preparing for Change Implementation and Evaluation Guidelines The Art of Change Agentry Using Self as a Change Instrument Mediation Roles of Public Organizational Change Agents Fostering Perspective Change for Empowerment: A Skills-Based Approach When They Don't Want to Change Empathy and Encouragement Confronting Change with Courage and Compassion Hope as the Imperative for Transformation Change through Creative Involvement The Art of Cooperation: A Case of Management Union Joint Problem Solving Creating Community in Government Holistic Learning: Integrating Individual and Organizational Change Wholeness in Organizational Transformation Change as the Ethics of Concern Cultivating Integrity in Change

The Work of IT System Developers in Context: An Organizational Case Study

The HCI community has become increasingly interested in analyzing the organizational context of systems design (e.g., Curtis, Krasner, & Iscoe, 1988). Previous work has focused on product development organizations in identifying organizational constraints on the work of system designers (Grudin, 1991b). This case study focuses on the working practices of internal system developers as they both developed a new IT system for the organization and managed the concomitant process of change. Here the organizational context (in terms of shared beliefs, politics and inter- and intragroup relations) is seen as informing both the manner in which the project was conducted and, to some extent, the customization of the product. The role of internal system developers as organizational change agents is highlighted, with emphasis on their image management and political strategies in effecting change.

Change Agentry - The Next IS Frontier

We wrote this essay to stimulate IS specialists' efforts to become more effective -- and more credible -- agents of organizational change. The essay describes what we believe to be a view of the IS specialists' change-agent role that is very commonly held by IS specialists. We believe this role, while well-intentioned and supported by structural conditions in IS work, often has negative consequences for organizations and for the credibility of IS specialists. Further, it does not fit the emerging structural conditions of IS. We describe two alternative models of what it means to be a change agent, their potential consequences, and the structural conditions that support or inhibit behavior in that role. We conclude that increased behavioral flexibility of IS specialists -- the ability to switch roles in different circumstances -- would improve organizational effectiveness and IS specialist credibility. Finally, we discuss the implications of our analysis for research, teaching, and practice.

Workplace Readiness for Communicating Diversity

The American workplace has become more multiculturally diverse in the last three decades. Many companies have recognized the benefits of a multicultural workforce and have supported efforts in a number of ways. However, there are still problems for minorities trying to assimilate into work settings as reflected in the many accounts of feelings of discomfort, alienation, and frustra tion experienced by racial and ethnic minority employees. One significant reason for this is the lack of preparedness for the various programs designed to promote diversity. Such programs are often developed by personnel departments without a diagnosis of the diversity problem or the input of employees, and, therefore, often end up not effecting significant change. Using the Organiza tional Readiness model developed by Armenakis, Harris, and Mossholder (1993), this paper discusses ways in which organizational change agents can assess the company's current interpersonal and social dynamics, use appropri ate influence...

The consultant as organizational change agent

AbstractEffective organizational change requires consultants who can create trusting relationships and learning communities.

Critical systems thinking: A challenge or dilemma in its practice?

Emerging descriptions of critical systems thinking (CST) have yet to provide much information on how consultants with such a philosophy should act as potential organizational change agents in actually gaining opportunities to introduce CST applications. Issues of professional activism and advocacy need to be explored in the recommended actions taken by such change agents to challenge the dominant ideology and aspects of a coercive political climate that exists in many organizations. Theory development and the creative potential of CST may be enhanced by its advocates studying related critical theory development in other management and social science subfields.

Shaken, but alive: organizational behavior in the wake of catastrophic events

When faced with survival-threatening catastrophic events, organizations are often advised to adopt radical, frame-breaking changes. However, evidence suggests threatened organizations tend to do exactly the reverse: they are rigid and detached, relying on existing strategies, routines and resources to pull them through, and then — if they survive — coping with problems once the threat has passed. This article explores the parallels between organizational crisis be havior and individual behavior in the wake of traumatic events, as described in the clinical theory of "post-traumatic stress disorder" (PTSD). Using Man ville Corporation's asbestos crisis to illustrate the theory, it is proposed that environmental catastrophes produce trauma by contradicting and invalidating strongly held organizational paradigms, or "world views". Although radical changes may be needed to rebuild organizational world views, trauma-related rigidity and detachment preclude such changes, making survival doubly prob lematic. As an alternative to radical change, the article proposes "behavioral self-blame" as a realistic intermediate solution for threatened organizations, and discusses the implications of this solution for researchers, practitioners and organizational change-agents.

RETHINKING TOKENISM:

The purpose of this article is to assess Rosabeth Moss Kanter's work on tokenism in light of more than a decade of research and discussion. While Kanter argued that performance pressures, social isolation, and role encapsulation were the consequences of disproportionate numbers of women and men in a workplace, a review of empirical data concludes that these outcomes occur only for token women in gender-inappropriate occupations. Furthermore, Kanter's emphasis on number balancing as a social-change strategy failed to anticipate backlash from dominants. Blalock's theory of intrusiveness suggests that surges in the number of lower-status members threaten dominants, thereby increasing gender discrimination in the forms of sexual harassment, wage inequities, and limited opportunities for promotion. Although Kanter's analysis of the individual consequences of tokenism was compelling to researchers and organizational change agents, continued reliance on numbers as the theoretical cause of, and as the solution to, gender discrimination in the workplace neglects the complexities of gender integration.