Age Of Horses Research Articles

The Prevalence of Gastric Ulcer Syndrome in 395 Horses in Jiangyin City, China, Jiangsu Province.

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and association of EGUS in horses of different ages, breeds and occupations. Gastroscopies were performed on 395 horses, and gastric ulcers were graded on a scoring system from 0 to 4. The relationship between age, breed, and work, along with the prevalence of gastric ulcers and their influences, were evaluated. The prevalence rate of ulcers in this herd was 78%. Older horses were prone to ulcers in both the glandular and squamous mucosal areas. Across the different jobs surveyed, 60% of the horses had a score of 2 or above. For the horses participating in more intense jobs (group performances, pulling carts, etc.), the number of horses with an ulcer score of 2 or above exceeded 50% of the total number of horses in this job. The prevalence of gastric ulcers was high, and these ulcers were severe in the horses belonging to the examined club, with no association between age or breed and the prevalence of ulcers; however, there was a difference in the location of the ulcers between breeds, as well as differences in the incidence and severity of ulcers depending on work activity. This study provides data reference values for the control and prevention of gastric ulcers in horses in this horse farm.

Challenges for the veterinary profession: A grounded theory study of veterinarians' experiences of caring for older horses.

In Great Britain, owners are keeping their horses into increasingly older age, reflecting societal changes in human-animal relationships. The uptake of routine veterinary services is reported to reduce as horses age. Horse owners seek information regarding their animal's health from alternative sources before and/or following veterinary involvement. Information regarding the experiences and behaviours of veterinarians toward older horse health care provision is limited. This study sought to explore how veterinary care for the ageing horse is conceptualised and approached by veterinarians treating horses in Great Britain. Exploratory qualitative. A subset of qualitative data, collected as part of a larger study investigating how owners and veterinarians make decisions regarding the care of the older horses, was analysed using a constructivist grounded theory approach. Data included semi-structured in-depth interviews with nine veterinarians and veterinary clinical records pertaining to the horses of 13 participating owners. Veterinarians valued regular interactions with owners to optimise a horse's management, however, the timing and nature of veterinary involvement varied. The context of older age shaped decision-making and 'age-appropriate' interventions were negotiated within the context of each horse and owner. Where participants had concerns about a horse, they sought to achieve an owner's adherence to their advice while navigating the veterinarian-owner relationship. Interpersonal dimensions of veterinarian-owner interactions appeared to shape, and could challenge, veterinarians' delivery of health care services and their own sense of being a professional who cares for animals, and about people. A sample of veterinarians were recruited for this study based on horse owners' involvement. The provision of veterinary care for the older horse rests upon networks of relationships. Collaboration between the profession and owners in both the design and delivery of, veterinary health care services may better enable different types of knowledge and values to be brought together more effectively.

Thyme oil and argan oil's effects on horse welfare

This study examines the effectiveness of thyme oil and argan oil as potential treatments for leg edema in horses. Swollen legs, often a result of infections, injuries, allergies, and underlying health conditions can significantly affect a horse's mobility and overall health. Traditional treatments may include antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, cold therapy, compression bandaging, and rest, but there is growing interest in natural remedies. For this purpose, argan and thyme oil were applied to 22 horses of various ages and different breeds at different times at Mersin Doğa Horse Farm. As a result of the study, some observations before and after the application of thyme and argan oil are listed. In addition, there was a significant association between oils and side effect from rash, itchiness, temperature increase, drinking too much, excessive urination (p

Estimation of genetic parameters for racing time and ranking in Thoroughbred horses

This study aimed to estimate genetic parameters for race time in seconds and final ranking, as well as to analyze the genetic trends associated with race time. The study utilized a dataset consisting of 23,290 records of race times and final ranks at distances of 1,000, 1,600, and 2,000 m from 6,213 Thoroughbred horses from the São Paulo Jockey Club. Our model considered the year of the run, animal sex, race class, track conditions, the linear effect of horse weight and age, and the quadratic effect of age as fixed covariates. Random effects included direct additive genetic, animal permanent environmental, and residual effects. Heritability estimates ranged from 0.01±0.03 to 0.17±0.04 (race time); 0.04±0.03 to 0.09±0.04 (final ranking), and repeatability from 0.19±0.02 to 0.37±0.02 (race time) and 0.15±0.02 to 0.23±0.04 (final ranking). Pearson's correlations of estimated breeding values between race time and ranking ranged from -0,027±0.16 to 0.84±0.01. When analyzing the genetic trend for races at a distance of 1,000 m, we observed a decrease in race time over time. However, for races at 1,600 and 2,000 m, a clear pattern of time reduction was not apparent. Race time offers a more promising response to selection, particularly in shorter races. Selecting for race time is expected to have a greater indirect impact on final rank. Genetic trends have revealed limited genetic progress over the years; therefore, it is advisable to reevaluate the current selection process.

Hypoechoic ultrasonographic findings in the patellar ligaments are common in riding and trotting horses in training (116 cases).

Patellar ligament (PL) injuries are increasingly being reported in horses, but few studies have described the normal PL ultrasonographic appearance in horses. The aims of this prospective observational study were to describe the ultrasonographic appearance of the PLs and infrapatellar fat pad in a population of horses in training and to relate the ultrasonographic findings to objectively measured movement asymmetry. B-mode and color Doppler ultrasonographic examination of the PLs and infrapatellar fat pad in both hind limbs and objective gait analyses were performed on the 116 riding and trotting horses included in the study. The association between ultrasonographic findings, horse age, and movement asymmetry during the trot was then investigated. Distinct or diffuse hypoechoic regions were commonly found in the intermediate PL (24/116; 20.7%), especially in the caudal aspect of the mid-third of the ligament. The infrapatellar fat pad had a hypoechoic striated appearance in all horses except one, in which it was hyperechoic. No association was found between ultrasonographic findings in the PLs and infrapatellar fat pad and lameness. It is important to recognize that there is biological variation in PL appearance, which may or may not be associated with pain in this area, therefore emphasizing the use of local analgesia to determine the location of the lameness.

A spectral cavalcade: Early Iron Age horse sacrifice at a royal tomb in southern Siberia

AbstractHorses began to feature prominently in funerary contexts in southern Siberia in the mid-second millennium BC, yet little is known about the use of these animals prior to the emergence of vibrant horse-riding groups in the first millennium BC. Here, the authors present the results of excavations at the late-ninth-century BC tomb of Tunnug 1 in Tuva, where the deposition of the remains of at least 18 horses and one human is reminiscent of sacrificial spectral riders described in fifth-century Scythian funerary rituals by Herodotus. The discovery of items of tack further reveals connections to the earliest horse cultures of Mongolia.

Analysis of the jumping performance of young warmblood horses based on the results of breeding competitions in the Czech Republic

The aim of the study was to evaluate the performance of warmblood horses in the Czech Republic based on the results of the Criteria of Young Horses (CYH) breeding competitions. In this study, we focused on the evaluation of horses in jumping competitions for mares, stallions and geldings aged 4 to 6 years. The statistical evaluation is based on the official CYH methodology, which takes into account the different difficulty of competitions for horses of different ages. Data from 2017 to 2021 were used for the evaluation. During this period, 645 horses participated in the competitions with 2691 starts. The statistical analysis evaluated the influence of age, sex, country of origin and breed group on the performance of the horses. Analysis of variance was used for comparison and Scheffe's test was used for subsequent post hoc analysis. Six-year-old horses were rated the highest (22.95 points) despite receiving the highest penalty points (3.29 penalty points). In the sex analysis, the overall rating for stallions was highly significant (P ≤ 0.01) higher than that of geldings and mares. Stallions were the least represented in terms of numbers (22.33%), but they had the highest number of starts per horse (4.75 starts) and the best mean score (23.32 points). A total of 76.12% of the horses that participated in the CYH were of Czech breeding, but their scores were statistically highly significant lower (P ≤ 0.01) than those of imported horses, with a difference in mean scores of 0.91 points. In terms of breed, the most numerous breeds were the Czech Warmblood (43.26%) and then the Czech Sport Horse (17.52%), but these breeds were below average in the overall evaluation (CZEWB 22.53 points, CSH 22.48 points). The third most represented breed was the Holstein horse, which, on the contrary, achieved the best average results (22.83 points) and the performance of representatives of this breed differed highly significantly (P ≤ 0.01) from most other breeds.

Survey of ocular abnormalities in a population of Turkmen horses.

The aim of this study was to detect and describe ocular abnormalities in a population of Turkmen horses. A total of 55 Turkmen horses (33 mares and 22 stallions) from one herd were evaluated in this study. Demographic data (Age, Sex, Coat color) were recorded. All animals underwent complete ophthalmic examination. The Schirmer tear test -I (STT-I) was performed for all horses prior to other diagnostic tests. Neuro-ophthalmic examinations (menace response, dazzle reflex, pupillary light reflex, maze test, and visual tracking) were carried out in different lighting situations (bright and dim lights). Slit lamp biomicroscopy, direct and indirect ophthalmoscopy, fluorescein staining, and tonometry were performed for each horse. The mean (standard deviation) age of horses was 5.7 (4.6) years (range of 1-17 years). In total, 18 horses (32.7%) had ocular-related lesions. Cataract, iris hyperpigmentation and corneal edema were the most identified conditions in the horses of this study. About one-third of studied horses had at least one ocular abnormality. No ocular abnormalities attributed to the distinct cream/gold coat color were identified, which the Turkmen horse is known for.

Detection of Gastrointestinal Pathogens with Zoonotic Potential in Horses Used in Free-Riding Activities during a Countrywide Study in Greece.

The objectives of this study were (a) to detect zoonotic gastrointestinal pathogens in faecal samples of horses using the FilmArray® GI Panel and (b) to identify variables potentially associated with their presence. Faecal samples collected from 224 horses obtained during a countrywide study in Greece were tested by means of the BioFire® FilmArray® Gastrointestinal (GI) Panel, which uses multiplex-PCR technology for the detection of 22 pathogens. Gastrointestinal pathogens were detected in the faecal samples obtained from 97 horses (43.3%). Zoonotic pathogens were detected more frequently in samples from horses in courtyard housing (56.0%) than in samples from horses in other housing types (39.7%) (p = 0.040). The most frequently detected zoonotic pathogens were enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (19.2% of horses) and Shiga-like toxin-producing E. coli stx1/stx2 (13.8%). During multivariable analysis, two variables emerged as significant predictors for the outcome 'detection of at least one zoonotic pathogen in the faecal sample from an animal': (a) the decreasing age of horses (p = 0.0001) and (b) the presence of livestock at the same premises as the horses (p = 0.013). As a significant predictor for the outcome 'detection of two zoonotic pathogens concurrently in the faecal sample from an animal', only the season of sampling of animals (autumn) emerged as significant in the multivariable analysis (p = 0.049). The results indicated a diversity of gastrointestinal pathogens with zoonotic potential in horses and provided evidence for predictors for the infections; also, they can serve to inform horse owners and handlers regarding the possible risk of transmission of pathogens with zoonotic potential. In addition, our findings highlight the importance of continuous surveillance for zoonotic pathogens in domestic animals.

Assessing the Peripheral Levels of the Neurotransmitters Noradrenaline, Dopamine and Serotonin and the Oxidant/Antioxidant Equilibrium in Circus Horses.

Due to the paucity of information on circus management effects on the welfare of horses, this study investigated the plasma concentrations of noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin, known to be indices of mental status, as well as the reactive oxygen metabolites (d-Roms) and the biological antioxidant potential (BAP), likely to denote the oxidant/antioxidant equilibrium of organisms, in horses managed in different Italian circuses. For the study, 56 circus horses of different breeds and ages were enrolled and divided into six groups according to the horses' management (circus management, groups G1-G5; classic riding management representing the control group, CG). From each horse, blood samples were collected in order to assess the concentration of selected parameters. One-way ANOVA showed no differences (p > 0.05) in serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, d-Roms and BAP values between circus and control horses. No differences related to the breed of the horses enrolled in the study were found in the values of all investigated parameters (p > 0.05). Furthermore, neurotransmitters showed overlapping levels between the different age classes of investigated horses (p > 0.05); contrariwise, the age of the horse displayed a significant effect on BAP values, with the oldest horses (16-21 age class) exhibiting lower BAP values compared to 4-5, 6-10 and 11-15 age classes (p < 0.05), whereas the d-Roms showed similar values in horses of different age classes (p > 0.05). The results gathered in the present study suggest that the mental status of horses under circus management was not compromised; however, better attention and care in the management of older horses is advocated, as they showed a lower biological antioxidant potential than younger horses; thus, they could be more susceptible to oxidative stress.

Ultrasonography of the suspensory ligament branches in yearling and 2-year-old Thoroughbred sales horses: Prevalence, progression of findings and associations with racing performance.

Equine suspensory ligament branch (branch) ultrasonography is becoming increasingly commonplace presale. No ultrasonographical branch reference data exists for Thoroughbred sales horses. To define the prevalence of ultrasonographical findings in the forelimb suspensory branches of yearling and 2-year-old sales Thoroughbreds and to analyse associations with racing performance. To track changes in branch findings between 1 and 2 years of age in horses that present for sale at both ages. Prospective cohort study using an enrolled sample. Horses were enrolled from a 2016 yearling sale and five 2017 2-year-old sales with consignor permission. Ultrasonography was performed immediately prior to the sales. Ultrasonographical findings relating to branch size, fibrillar pattern, the presence of hyperechoic foci, periligamentar tissue thickness and the adjacent proximal sesamoid bone surface were examined. Associations with racing performance from 2 to 4 years of age were investigated using multivariate regression analyses. Clinical follow-up was sought to ascertain why horses that did not race never started. A total of 593 sales yearlings and 367 2-year-olds had forelimb branch ultrasonography performed. Grade ≥2 fibrillar branch change was present in 8.9% of yearlings and 14.4% of 2-year-olds. A 0.25 cm increase in branch width was associated with a 49-day delayed start to racing careers (P < 0.001, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 21-77 days). The presence of grade 2 hyperechoic foci was associated with significantly lower total earnings (P = 0.01, 95% CI: $2000-$16 022) and lower earnings per start (P = 0.003, 95% CI: $349-$1718) in United States Dollars. Grade 3 fibrillar branch change had clinically important reductions in the probability of racing, the calibre of racing performance and earnings. Grade 1 fibrillar pattern was associated with significantly higher earnings per start (P = 0.004, 95% CI: $2641-$5759). The findings are applicable to horses prepared for public auction and deemed fit to be entered for sale. The results may underestimate the proportion of severe lesions in horses not entered for sale. Reference values specific to young Thoroughbreds have been established. Grade 1 fibrillar branch change should be regarded as an acceptable appearance in sales yearlings and 2-year-olds. Approximately one-third of grade 2 yearling branches progressed to a grade 3 lesion. Evidence of enlarged branch width and grade 2 hyperechoic foci at 2-year-old sales constitute a risk to racing performance.

Transrectal ultrasonographic assessment of the fetal proximal phalanx: A new tool to assess fetal age and bone development in horses

Fetal age in Quarter Horses can be predicted within 2 weeks from 100- to 200- days of gestation using femur length, biparietal diameter (cranium diameter) and eye approximated volume. However, as pregnancy advances, the femur and cranium become too large to be imaged in their entirety using ultrasound and the corresponding biometric parameters can no longer be measured. In this longitudinal study, the proximal phalanx (P1) was evaluated as a novel biometric parameter for late gestation to predict fetal age and bone maturation. Transrectal ultrasound was performed in ten pregnant mares with known ovulation dates, every two weeks from 240- days of gestation until parturition. P1 was imaged in 69 % of the examinations. Inability to image P1 was due to obstructive positioning such as carpal or fetlock flexion, or posterior presentation of the fetus. Advancing fetal age did not affect visibility of P1. P1 length correlated significantly with days of gestation and a correlation equation was established: y = 0.3837x -69.55 where y is the predicted value of P1 length and x is the day of gestation (with day 0 being the day of ovulation). When P1 length was equal to or larger than the width of the ultrasound image (52.5 mm), 90 % of mares (9/10) were above 300- days of gestation. Ossification of the proximal and distal epiphysis of P1 typically appeared between 277- and 303 -days of gestation (mean: 288 days). The proximal epiphysis did not close before parturition whereas the distal one closed between 306- and 333-days of gestation (mean: 320 days). P1 epiphyseal appearance and closure occurred chronologically reflecting bone maturation. Radiographic findings at birth and prenatal ultrasound findings were in agreement, apart from timing of P1 distal epiphyseal closure. In conclusion, P1 length can be used as a new fetal biometric parameter to assess fetal age and growth after 240- days of gestation. The knowledge of P1 bone maturation process in utero as a marker for fetal bone development, may also be valuable in clinical decision-making when considering inducing parturition in the mare.

Dry matter concentration, particle size distribution and sand presence in faeces from horses with and without colic

A study comprising 74 colic and 74 control horses admitted to an animal hospital was performed. Faecal samples were collected and analysed for dry matter concentration, particle size distribution using wet-sieving, and sand presence through a sand sedimentation test. Data on horse breed, age, gender and basic feeding variables was collected and analysed using χ2-tests. Faecal dry matter concentration, particle size distribution and sand score was compared between colic and non-colic horses, and between horses with different colic types, using one-way ANOVA. Results showed that colic and non-colic horse groups were similar in breed, age, gender and basic feeding variables. Faecal dry matter concentration, particle size distribution and sand score were similar among colic and non-colic horses. Horses diagnosed with “unknown colic cause” had higher proportion of particles >0.5 <1.0 mm size compared to horses with colic due to impactions in caecum or colon, torsion or gas accumulation (P<0.05), but this difference was very small and most likely not of biological importance. Faecal dry matter concentration and sand score were similar among horses with different types of colic. Increased knowledge of the composition of particles of different size in equine faeces may enhance our understanding of digesta passage rate in colic and non-colic horses, which is needed to develop preventative measures of certain types of colic.

Strongylids of Domestic Horses in Eastern Slovakia: Species Diversity and Evaluation of Particular Factors Affecting Strongylid Communities

PurposeThis study aimed to examine the species diversity and structure of the strongylid community in domestic horses in Eastern Slovakia. Also, an analysis of the impact of age, sex, and collection location factors on the strongyid communities was performed.MethodsTwenty-seven horses 1.5–21 years old from two farms in eastern Slovakia with different horse-management conditions were studied. Strongylids were collected after horse treatments with Noromectin (0.2 mg ivermectin); 66,170 specimens were collected and identified. Faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) was performed following fenbendazole (FBZ) and ivermectin (IVM) treatments.ResultsTwenty-four strongylid species were found; horses were infected with 6 to 16 (average = 11.7) species. Six cyathostomin species (Cylicocyclus nassatus, Cyathostomum catinatum, C. pateratum, Cylicostephanus longibursatus, C. goldi, C. calicatus) were the most prevalent; C. catinatum was the dominant species in both farms (Berger-Parker index 0.34 and 0.42). The structure of the strongylid community was multimodal with dominant, subdominant, background, and rare species. The Mantel test showed that horse age and sex did not significantly affect the nematode infracommunity composition (p > 0.05), while the impact of the collection location (farm) was significant (p = 0.03). Additionally, C. longibursatus was identified as the species contributing significantly to the observed farm differences. Strong resistance to FBZ was documented on both farms (FECRT was 36.4% and 22.7%); IVM resistance was not observed (FECRT = 100%).ConclusionThis study presents the first report on the strongylids parasitizing domestic horses in Eastern Slovakia and gives basic information for further studies of horse parasites and their control in the region.

Comparison of daily heart rate and heart rate variability in trained and sedentary aged horses

Athletic horses are usually retired from equestrian competition at an advanced age. Aged horses may then continue to have regular exercise or are sedentary. The comparison of autonomic regulation between sedentary aged horses (SAH) and trained aged horses (TAH) after retirement remains unpublished. This study compared daily heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability between 11 SAH and 11 TAH over 22 h (07.00 h to 05.00 h on an alternate day) and during the day and night. An increase in mean beat-to-beat (RR) intervals (p < 0.01-0.0001) and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) index (p < 0.05-0.0001), corresponding to the decreased HR and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) index (p < 0.01-0.0001), was observed at night. Compared to SAH, lowered mean HR and SNS index, corresponding to elevated mean RR intervals and very-low-frequency bands, were marked in TAH during the day (p < 0.05 for all variables). Whereas the standard deviation of the RR intervals index was higher in TAH than in SAH during the day and night (p < 0.05 for both periods). It was suggested that aged horses with different physical activities revealed distinct autonomic responses. TAH demonstrated higher HRV than SAH during the day. A decreased HR in TAH is prone to result from a reduced SNS role, leading to a shift toward more PNS activity during the day. More research is warranted to determine to what extent the autonomic regulation is modulated by accompanying higher exercise volume or programmed exercise in aged horses.

Career profile and pattern of racing for Thoroughbred jumps-racing horses in New Zealand

Context Racing structure and focus for racehorses differs across jurisdictions and is poorly described. In New Zealand and Australia, jumps racing accounts for a small proportion of total Thoroughbred races each year, as opposed to the larger jumps-racing (National Hunt) industry with purpose-bred horses found in the UK and Ireland. Aims This study aimed to describe the career profile and pattern of racing for Thoroughbred jumps-racing horses in New Zealand. Methods Metrics from every horse with a full jumps-racing career (n = 1276, 89% geldings) between the 2005/06 and 2021/22 racing seasons (n = 40,302 starts) were examined. Descriptive statistics, box plots and heat maps were used to describe the data, by using horse age as a proxy for career progression. Key results Jumps-racing horses had a median of 17 flat starts (IQR 9–30) before their first jumps-racing start. The median career of a jumps-racing horse was 3.7 years (IQR 2.3–5.2) and 29 starts (IQR 16–44). Older horses had a decreasing number of flat-racing starts and an increasing proportion of steeplechase-racing starts. However, the majority of horses still had at least one flat-race start per calendar year, often prior to the first jumps race. Most horses had one spell each season (length 194 days, IQR 124–259), and a condensed preparation length over the winter months, with a median of 14 days (IQR 10–21) between starts. Conclusion The career pattern for jumps-racing horses in New Zealand reflects the industry retention of horses with a prior career in flat racing into a secondary jumps-racing career. Successful horses have increased focus on preparation for the winter jumps-racing season. Implications Jumps racing provides a secondary racing career for some flat-racing horses, particularly geldings. This strategy reduces wastage of horses from the industry.

Diamond burr debridement of calcific band keratopathy in 24 eyes of 22 horses.

To evaluate the safety and effectiveness of diamond burr debridement (DBD) for the treatment of calcific band keratopathy (CBK) in horses. Medical records from horses with CBK were reviewed over a period of 4 years. Diagnosis of CBK was based on slit-lamp examination findings, and DBD was performed on standing sedated horses. Follow-up was obtained by clinical reevaluation of the treated eyes or a telephone survey with the referring veterinarian. Twenty-two horses of different ages (median: 11 years; range: 5-23) representing 24 CBK-affected eyes (14 left eyes and 10 right eyes) were included in the study. The patients had a medical history of chronic and recurrent uveitis, which required repeated long-term treatments with various combinations of ophthalmic corticosteroids. DBD alone cleared the cornea in 22 affected eyes (92%), but it was combined with blade scraping in two cases with thick calcium plaques. The postoperative medication included a topical antibiotic, atropine drops, and oral flunixin meglumine. Corneal healing was achieved in 21 eyes (87%), 5-21 days (median time 13 days) postoperatively. The three remaining horses were lost to follow-up. Recurrence occurred in 5 of the 21 (24%) reexamined eyes, 3-12.5 weeks (median 8 weeks) postoperatively, and required a second DBD. Four of the 21 eyes ended up being enucleated due to sequelae of uveitis. The main limitations of the study include those inherent to all retrospective clinical data collections. Mechanical DBD can readily and safely clear the cornea in horses with CBK, but recurrence of calcium deposition is possible.

The effects of pressure and release training on equine behavior and discipline

In America, there are over 100,000 horse-related injuries per year (Mendell, 2006). It is important that all horses are properly trained to avoid dangerous accidents resulting from poor training involving the horse, rider, or spectators. This study aims to understand how a person should approach properly training a horse. It determines what training methods are the most effective and why it is important that owners understand how horses process discipline. Previous research indicates the common need for pressure, but fails to explore it as a training method. As such, a definite answer that explains how Pressure and Release Training affects equine behavior and discipline has not been determined. A physical experiment collecting and analyzing quantitative data was conducted in order to obtain the most accurate and specific results. Horses of various breeds, ages, sexes, and training levels were subjected to five different Pressure and Release Training exercises and scored on their completion (attempt &gt; accuracy). Each horse was tested twice on separate days to ensure replicability. All horses completed every exercise successfully without conflict behaviors or refusal (50/50). The experiment reveals that regardless of traits, Pressure and Release Training is an effective training method that horses understand even without previously consistent training. However, it is vital that trainers understand how horses process discipline so that they know if the training is effective and low stress for the horse.

Investigation of healthy horse eyes microbiota and evaluation of its antimicrobial susceptibility

SummaryBackgroundThe conjunctiva of the eye is a mucosal surface that is colonised by various bacteria. Following surgery, trauma or other underlying conditions the normal flora may cause eye infection such as conjunctival and corneal infections, or endophthalmitis.ObjectivesThis study aimed to investigate the bacterial population and antibiotic resistance of the conjunctiva in healthy horses.Study designRandom sampling of ocular samples from 20 horses during the winter (2019).MethodsSwab samples were collected from the eyes of 20 healthy horses of different breeds, ages and sexes in Tehran province, Iran. The swabs were cultured on blood agar and MacConkey agar and incubated at 37°C for 24–48 h. The isolated bacteria were characterised using cellular morphology, gram‐staining and biochemical tests. Sensitivity and resistance to 10 different antibiotics were measured using an antibiogram test.ResultsResults showed that the bacterial population consisted of various species, with Bacillus cereus being the most frequent. There were no significant differences in the frequency of isolated bacteria between sexes and age groups. There were no significant differences in the sensitivity of the bacterial flora of the eyes to colistin, ceftiofur, florfenicol, amoxicillin and ampicillin between either different age groups or different sexes of the horses (p &gt; 0.05). However, sensitivity to enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin was significantly correlated with the age groups of the horses (p &gt; 0.05). A significant difference in sensitivity to trimethoprim‐sulfamethoxazole between various sexes of horses was observed.Main limitationsThe nonuniformity of the follow‐up examination, reliance on owners or caregivers of the horse for follow‐up information and lack of adequate financial resources to study more horses.ConclusionsThe study suggests that the frequency of individual bacteria comprising the bacterial flora in horses' eyes is influenced by housing and management conditions rather than age and sex.

The effect of cortisol on equine monocyte–derived dendritic cell phenotype and cytokine production

AbstractBackgroundIncreased risk of infection in neonates, including foals, is associated with the naivety of the immune system and the immaturity of the endocrine system. Foal dendritic cells (DCs) are phenotypically and functionally less mature than adult horse DCs. Exposure of foal DCs to foal plasma alters DC phenotypic maturation, cytokine secretion and bacterial endocytosis. Specific plasma factors that impact equine DC activity are unknown. Endocrine dysfunction, resulting in altered cortisol availability, is common in foals. Cortisol impacts DC maturation and function in other species, but the effect of cortisol on equine DCs is not described. We hypothesized that exposure to cortisol would impact both the phenotype and function of equine monocyte–derived DCs (MoDCs), perpetuating an immature phenotype and altered cytokine profile.MethodsMoDCs were generated from foals (n = 8) on 1, 7 and 30 days of age and adult horses (n = 9). MoDCs were exposed to killed bacteria in the presence or absence of cortisol. The expression of surface markers (MHC class‐II, CD86 and CD14) was measured by flow cytometry. Supernatant cytokine concentrations (IL‐4, IL‐17, IFN‐γ and IL‐10) were quantified using a validated bead‐based immunoassay.ResultsCortisol exposure reduced the percentage of equine MoDCs expressing MHC class‐II and CD86 (p ≤ 0.03). Adult horse MoDCs exposed to bacteria and cortisol produced less IL‐4, IL‐17, IFN‐γ and IL‐10 than cells not treated with cortisol, and foal MoDCs secreted less IL‐10 and IL‐4 (p ≤ 0.009).ConclusionsIn sum, cortisol exposure perpetuates an immature MoDC phenotype and alters cytokine responses, which might impact the foal's susceptibility to infection.