African Grey Research Articles

Diagnosis and treatment of hepatic lipidosis in a 42-year-old gray parrot: A case report

The African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) is among the world's most well-known seed-eating cage birds. A grain-eating diet has been reported to cause liver lipidosis in parrots. Fatty liver syndrome occurs when the liver cannot metabolize and re-secrete processed fatty acids due to excessive dietary fatty acids or lipolysis. The present study involves a 42-year-old African grey parrot with extensive feather pecking in the neck, legs, and chest areas, red color changes in the feathers on the legs, and lethargy. The patient's medical history includes the consumption of sugar, chocolate, and whole grains, which is the main reason for metabolic disorders. A comprehensive evaluation of serum biochemistry, total protein levels, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine kinase (CK), triglycerides, and uric acid was conducted on the first visit. Following two weeks of treatment, the bird was again referred to the clinic for clinical pathological evaluation and diagnostic imaging. Different liver medicines, such as herbal antioxidants, vitamins, and amino acid supplements, are prescribed during the treatment process. In addition, the bird's diet was modified. Following the diet and treatment, the blood parameters reached normal limits. The echogenicity of liver tissue was close to normal after the initial observation of feathers regrowing in some areas, as well as blood sample evaluation. A paraclinical test was taken on the bird again after two months of treatment to ensure the disease did not recur. Diligent care, nutritional support, veterinary monitoring, and appropriate medications can improve hepatic lipidosis, but permanent damage may occur. Therefore, it is very critical to quickly diagnose and prevent the recurrence of the illness.

The Environmental Consequence of Automobile and Motor-bike Traffic Noise Intensity on the Activity of African Grey Parrots (Psithacus erittacus) in Limbe Botanic Garden, Southwest Region, Cameroon

Highway traffic noise pollution is unavoidably generated by human activity, and has caused serious health problems to the human society. However, it’s also a challenge to many wildlife species, though, continous exposure to the noise stimuli has seemingly given them adaptation. Understanding the ability of wildlife species to cope with noise pollution is complex, thus, requires research. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore automobile and motor bike traffic noise intensity on African grey parrots’ activity in Limbe Botanic Garden. The research data was collected for a period of three months from 8:00 am - 5:00 pm each day. Traffic noise pollution is difficult to avoid in urban settings because of huge human population and its activity, however, its interference with other sounds is common, and wildlife population living in cities, such as birds are affected. The study revealed a positive significance X2 = 25.796 df=2 P=0.000 and X2 =39.489 df=6 P=0.000 on photoperiod and meteorological conditions respectively. Moreover, meteorological changes in the study area recorded significance on sun 75%, cloud 15%, wind 6%, and rain 4% respectively. Furthermore, noise intensity of automobile and motor bike traffic around the botanic garden area showed a significance X2 = 5.657 df=8 P<0.05, and r = 0.209 P=0.000 on behavior and parrots' food availability respectively. The highest parrots’ activity recorded during this study was on contact calls 54%, and the least was roosting 3%. Though a comprehensive inventory is not carried out on the parrot population in Cameroon, there are signs, these birds are already facing population reduction; principally because of the pet-trade driven by the craving human love for the colourful plumage morphology and the talented sound-mimicking behavior of the parrots. There is a necessity for further study to be carried out on the birds’ population census in the country. The study found that traffic noise intensity at all levels have a negative influence on the aggregation activity of grey parrots, reason why they avoid the vegetation along the streets of the garden. Finally, oil palm fruit-feeding was a dominant activity recorded in this study, hence, we recommend more oil palm trees be planted in the garden far from major roads to enrich the feeding environment of the grey parrots.

Avian gastric yeast (macrorhabdosis) in cockatiel, budgerigar and grey parrot: a focus on the clinical signs, molecular detection and phylogenetic evaluation.

Macrorhabdus ornithogaster is a microorganism that causes nonspecific and general clinical symptoms and to this day, diagnosis and also treatment have been yet hard. The present study was conducted to survey the prevalence of macrorhabdosis and to characterize M. ornithogaster phylogenetically in Psittaciformes suspected of macrorhabdosis from January 2018 to May 2019 in Ahvaz, Iran. For this purpose, fecal samples were collected from Psittaciformes with signs of the disease. Wet mounts were prepared from fecal samples and examined carefully using a light microscope. Samples from parrots with gastrointestinal symptoms of the disease were chosen for molecular diagnosis of the organism and DNA was extracted from these samples. For detection of M. ornithogaster, primer sets (BIG1, Sm4) and (AGY1, Sm4) which target the 18S rDNA gene were selected and Semi-nested polymerase chain reaction (Semi-nested PCR) was performed. The PCR method confirmed the presence of M. ornithogaster in 14.00% of the samples. Purified PCR products were sequenced for more accurate confirmation and according to the gene sequence all sequences were owned by M. ornithogaster. The results disclosed a 96.03 - 100% identity when compared to other sequences of M. ornithogaster which had previously been deposited in the GenBank® from Germany and the USA. The results of this study proved the circulation of M. ornithogaster between cockatiel, budgerigar and grey parrot. The prevalence of macrorhabdosis was higher in cockatiel compared to budgerigar and grey parrot. As far as the authors know, this was the first record of macrorhabdosis in African grey parrots.

Supplemental Material for The Role of Head and Body Cues in Visual Individual Recognition in Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus)

Supplemental Material for The Role of Head and Body Cues in Visual Individual Recognition in Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus)

Attitudes and perceptions of farmers on the African grey parrot in Oba Hills National Park, Osun State, Nigeria

This study is focused on people’s perceptions and attitudes on the population decline of African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus) in Osun state, Nigeria. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire. The population of the study area comprises 234 farmers from communities in the study area. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, T-test, Pearson Correlation, and Chi-square test. The results revealed that 78% of the respondents were male, while 22% were female. Majority (51%) of the farmers were between the age group of 41-59 years, Christians (54%), indigenes (76%), and Nigerian (69%). As revealed from the study, 77.5% of the farmers were familiar with the African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus). The farmers showed great knowledge of the bird and the ecosystem services rendered, thus they have a positive perception and attitude about African Grey Parrot conservation. The study recommended that the bird conservation club be initiated by forest management which should include youths, adults, and school teachers in the area in order to enlist farmers in the bird conservation program.

Prevalence of Avian Gastric Yeast (Macrorhabdus ornithogaster) in Parrots and Parakeets: A Case Study

Introduction: The avian gastric yeast (Macrorhabdus ornithogaster) is a microorganism that infects aviary birds worldwide and can cause chronic wasting disease. Macrorhabdus ornithogaster, previously named Megabacter, infects a large group of companion birds, such as cockatiels, budgerigars, lovebirds, parrots, african gray parrots, and green-cheeked parakeets. The aim of the present case study was to evaluate the infection by Macrorhabdus ornithogaster in some companion birds and to show their prospects in the future.
 Case report: The investigated species included 145 cockatiels, gray parrots, lovebirds, green cheeks, and budgerigars with symptoms, such as lethargy, weight loss, regurgitation, and gasping referred to the Aria Veterinary Hospital, Mashhad, Iran, during 2021-2022. The samples were randomly evaluated for gastric yeast (Megabacter) using the gram-staining method of their feces.
 Conclusion: The results revealed that almost half of the symptomatic cases showed active or non-active yeast in their slides. A 14-day treatment of nystatin, apple vinegar, and metronidazole was applied for all cases, and then gram-staining slides were tested after three weeks showing that the treatment was successful. However, infection recurrence was detected in several birds, suggesting food hygiene control.

Effect of different injection rates and doses of contrast medium on the image quality of computed tomographic angiography in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus)

Atherosclerosis is a common cardiovascular disease in parrots but the antemortem diagnosis is challenging. In human medicine, computed tomography angiography (CTA) has been used widely for the diagnosis of atherosclerosis. By adjusting the injection rate and total dose of contrast medium, the image quality can be improved. To test the effects of different injection conditions on the image quality of major arteries, 10 African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) were used. Three injection rates (0.3, 0.4, 0.5mL/s) and three doses (740, 370, 222mg of iodine/bird) were tested while the other variables of the studies were fixed. A higher injection dose led to a significantly higher attenuation, image noise and diameter, with a lower signal-to-noise ratio and contrast-to-noise ratio of the six major arteries. The 370mg of iodine/bird group showed significantly better subjective image quality. Furthermore, with increasing injection rates, the prevalence of heterogeneity decreased. However, we found an increased risk of injection failure for the 0.5mL/s groups. We recommend a combination of 370mg of iodine/bird with 0.4mL/s for clinical use to achieve better image quality for CTA.

A survey of vocal mimicry in companion parrots

Parrots are one of the rare animal taxa with life-long vocal learning. Parrot vocal repertoires are difficult to study in the wild, but companion parrots offer a valuable data source. We surveyed the public about mimicry repertoires in companion parrots to determine whether vocal learning varied by (1) species, (2) sex, (3) age, and (4) social interaction with other parrots. Species differed significantly in mimicry ability, with grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) having the largest mimicry repertoires. Analyses of all birds (n = 877) found no overarching effects of sex, age, or parrot-parrot social interactions on mimicry repertoires. Follow up analyses (n = 671), however, revealed a human bias to assume that talking parrots are male, and indicated that five of the 19 best-sampled species exhibited sex differences. Age-specific analyses of grey parrots (n = 187) indicated that repertoire size did not increase during adulthood. Most parrots were capable of improvisation (e.g. rearranging words) and used mimicry in appropriate human contexts. Results indicate that parrot vocal production learning varies among and within species, suggesting that the mechanisms and functions of learning also vary. Our data provide a rich foundation for future comparative research on avian vocalizations, and broaden our understanding of the underpinnings of communicative behavior and learning across all animals.

Cerebellar Hypoplasia in Two Juvenile African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus).

Two sibling 12-week-old DNA-sexed female African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) were presented for progressive whole-body tremors, proprioceptive deficits, and an inability to stand unassisted. A third bird in the clutch (DNA-sexed as a male) exhibited no clinical signs. Physical examination of the affected birds revealed ataxia, inability to stand without assistance, and a reliance on their beaks to assist with their mobility. Hematologic and biochemical analyses were normal, as were radiographic images of both birds. Cerebellar disease of unknown origin was diagnosed, and the birds were euthanized. Postmortem examinations of the brains of both parrots revealed marked reduction in cerebellar size and poor folia formation. Microscopic review of the cerebellums demonstrated decreased density of the granular layer and thinning of the molecular layer with poorly organized and differentiated Purkinje fibers, consistent with a diagnosis of cerebellar hypoplasia. There are limited clinical reports and experimental studies examining cerebellar disease in birds. Conditions described have included cerebellar hypoplasia, cerebellar abiotrophy, and cerebellar dysplasia. Although these terms are used interchangeably due to similar clinical signs, histopathology is needed to differentiate between the different disease conditions. This case describes cerebellar hypoplasia that suggested a developmental etiology in 2 African grey parrots.

Novel adenoviruses from captive psittacine birds in Slovenia

To assess the prevalence of adenoviruses in psittacine birds kept in Slovenia, 258 cloacal swabs were collected from different psittacine species and screened by a nested PCR with degenerate, consensus primers targeting the adenoviral DNA polymerase gene. Forty-two samples were found to be positive. By sequencing, 28 samples from 10 different parrot species were identified as the formerly described siadenovirus, psittacine adenovirus 2 (PsAdV-2). A second siadenovirus, a variant of PsAdV-5 (described earlier from Pacific parrotlet, sun parakeet, cockatiel and budgerigar) was found in seven budgerigars, two cockatiels and an amazon parrot species. A variant of Meyer’s parrot adenovirus (aviadenovirus, proposed PsAdV-8) was identified in an African grey parrot and a cockatiel. Two novel atadenoviruses were revealed in cockatiel (PsAdV-9) and rose-ringed parakeet (PsAdV-10). These results support the earlier finding that many PsAdVs can cross the species barrier among psittacines, especially effectively in the case of PsAdV-2.

DNA Sex Identification Using Different Biological Samples from Four Companion Bird Species

Most companion birds have no distinct sexual dimorphic traits. The aim of this study was to identify the CHD genes from sexual chromosomes of birds (ZW) from various tissue samples. Feathers, oral swabs, blood and various tissues (by necropsy) were collected from four companion bird species (Gallus gallus domesticus, Melopsittacus undulatus, Psittacus erithacus, Ara ararauna). Feathers were processed mechanically using the Tissue Lyser II. DNA isolation was performed using the Isolate II Genomic DNA, Bioline kit. PCR was performed according to Griffiths et al. (1998) using P2/P8 primers. Chicken whose DNA sexing was identified based on phenotypic characters, was confirmed by PCR. Budgerigars whose DNA sexing identified a male and female have been confirmed based on necropsy results. African Grey Parrot whose sex was identified by DNA sexing as female was confirmed based on a genetic sexing previously performed. The Blue and Yellow Macaw, whose sex was determined as male by DNA sexing, was confirmed based on necropsy results. DNA concentration was higher in blood samples than in oral swabs or feathers. Blood collection is considered an invasive procedure in birds. For feather samples, mechanical denaturation before DNA extraction is recommended. Oral swab samples are suitable for isolating and amplifying DNA in birds.

Contrafreeloading in kea (Nestor notabilis) in comparison to Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus)

Contrafreeloading—working to access food that could be freely obtained—is rarely exhibited and poorly understood. Based on data from Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus), researchers proposed a correlation between contrafreeloading and play: that contrafreeloading is more likely when subjects view the task as play. We tested that hypothesis by subjecting a relatively more playful parrot species, the kea (Nestor notabilis), to the same experimental tasks. Experiment 1 presented eight kea with container pairs holding more- or less-preferred free or enclosed food items, and examined three types of contrafreeloading: calculated (working to access preferred food over less-preferred, freely available food); classic (working to access food identical to freely available food); and super (working to access less-preferred food over preferred, freely available food). At the group level, the kea behaved similarly to the Greys: They significantly preferred calculated contrafreeloading, performed classic contrafreeloading at chance, and significantly failed to super contrafreeload. However, overall kea engaged in more contrafreeloading than Greys. Experiment 2 examined a potentially more ecologically relevant task, a choice between shelled and unshelled walnuts. No kea contrafreeloaded for nuts, whereas two of five Greys significantly preferred nut contrafreeloading and one chose at chance. We examine proximate and adaptive explanations for the performances of these differentially playful parrot species to further elucidate the role of play in contrafreeloading.

Evaluation of diagnostic criteria in grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) with suspected atherosclerosis.

Atherosclerosis is a common disease in older psittacines living in captivity with inadequate housing conditions. However, diagnosis in the living bird remains difficult and the disease is often only recognized during post mortem examination. In this context, we aimed at investigating the diagnostic value of currently reported methods in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). 7 clinically healthy African grey parrots and 32 African grey parrots with suspected atherosclerosis were evaluated in this study. An overall scoring system was implemented based on clinical signs, measurement of blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels, a radiographic exam, and an echocardiogram in B-mode. Furthermore, measurements of the blood flow velocity in the aortic root, heart rate and velocity time integral were performed using the spectral Doppler ultrasonographic function. Measurements of the blood flow velocity in the aortic root showed highly significant differences between the clinically healthy group and a subset of the patient group. Significant differences between the groups also were evident concerning the results of the overall scoring and of the initial examinations. The results support that combining spectral Doppler ultrasonographic examination with other diagnostic options may be used to substantiate suspected atherosclerosis and provide additional information regarding the cardiovascular status of the patient. The presented findings indicate that employing the described diagnostic methods allows for an intra vitam diagnosis of atherosclerosis and therefore an earlier initiation of treatment.

Treatment of Recurrent Multifocal Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma in an African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus) with Intralesional Carboplatin in Poloxamer 407

A 16-year-old male Congo African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) was presented with an ulcerated wing mass that was excised and diagnosed on histopathology as squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). A second surgery was performed to completely excise the tumor margins, resulting in over 5 years of remission for the neoplasm. However, over the next 6 years the patient developed SCC in 3 new locations on the body, as well as 2 squamous papillomas. The 2 papillomas were surgically excised and did not recur. Due to their size and location, none of the 3 new SCCs were amenable to complete excision. Instead, the 3 SCCs were managed with a series of treatments with intralesional carboplatin in poloxamer 407 and carbon dioxide surgical laser debridements. This treatment regimen has resulted in long-term (52 months, 30 months, and 17 months) resolution for all 3 of the SCCs. The overall survival time for the patient, from the initial diagnosis to the time of this report, is over 2900 days. While being treated for the 3 SCCs, the African grey parrot had no overt signs of complications or adverse side effects.

Pathological and mycological characterization of pulmonary Aspergillus fumigatus infection producing gliotoxin in a captive African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus)

Aspergillosis, the main causative agent of which is Aspergillus fumigatus, causes mortality in all types of birds. Gliotoxin (GT), one of the multiple virulence factors of A. fumigatus, has a variety of immunosuppressive effects. The corpse of an African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) was sent for necropsy and diagnostic rule-out. The lungs were enlarged, firm, and had dark-red coloration, on the parietal faces of both lungs, some semi-circular caseous necrosis areas were observed. The caudal thoracic and abdominal air sacs were thickened and contained a fibrin-heterophilic exudate. Histopathologically, a necrotic and granulomatous bronchopneumonia was observed with intralesional hyphae with characteristics compatible with Aspergillus sp. that were positive with Grocott´s staining. Fibrinous and heterophilic airsacculitis was found in the air sacs. A. fumigatus was isolated from lungs, characterized using serial microcultures, and confirmed using polymerase chain reaction. In addition, GT production was detected in vitro from the culture filtrate in which the isolate was grown; the organic extract was analysed via thin-layer chromatography. This is the first detection of GT in a case of pulmonary aspergillosis in a parrot, which could help to understand the pathogenesis of the disease in psittacines.

Corrigendum to ‘Inferring patterns of wildlife trade through monitoring social media: shifting dynamics of trade in wild-sourced African Grey parrots following major regulatory changes’ [Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 33 (2022) e01964

Corrigendum to ‘Inferring patterns of wildlife trade through monitoring social media: shifting dynamics of trade in wild-sourced African Grey parrots following major regulatory changes’ [Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 33 (2022) e01964

Intra‐ and interspecific structural variation in the archosaur lung: insights from 3D imaging and segmentation

Innovations in three‐dimensional (3D) imaging and segmentation have facilitated unprecedented levels of anatomical investigation into the detailed structures of the respiratory system that are often difficult to study in situ. Recent hypotheses of homology between crocodilians and birds have facilitated quantitative comparative analyses of bronchial trees and in situ models reveal new complexities in the relationship between the respiratory and skeletal systems. Here we quantitatively compare the bronchial trees of two crocodilians, the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) and Cuvier’s dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus) with select birds, including the ostrich (Struthio camelus), the African gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus), and the red‐tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis). Notably, the relative distances from the carina to the secondary bronchi measured are conserved, indicating a possible ancestral or constrained trait. With respect to interspecific avian comparisons, we found grossly observable variation within a single taxon in air sac morphology (e.g., P. erithacus), as well as substantial differences between the individual taxa via segmented surface models – particularly in the expansions of the interclavicular sacs, the extent of the diverticula, and the size of the abdominal sacs. Furthermore, we found that specific sac contribution to postcranial pneumatization varies substantially across our dataset. Individual specimens imaged for this study also revealed multiple pathologies, including scoliosis, foreign objects inside the animals, and broken bones, which have been incorporated into the anatomical models for clinical surgical atlases that are under development. While these data are preliminary, they provide a framework for larger scale comparisons and hypotheses of the ancestral archosaurian pulmonary system.

Interspecific variation in avian postcranial pneumaticity: A pilot study

The avian respiratory system is composed of a unidirectionally ventilated, volume‐constant gas‐exchanging lung, and a series of compliant, flexible air sacs. Diverticula from the lungs and air sacs invade adjacent bone and create air‐filled cavities within the skeleton through the process of pneumatization. While previous studies have addressed the presence or absence of pneumatic bones in multiple species, the pattern of pneumatization has been vaguely generalized with respect to which lung elements are responsible for pneumatizing different skeleton regions. Here, we aim to address which components of the avian respiratory system are pneumatizing each component of the postcranial skeleton and how the patterns vary between different taxa. Computed tomography (CT) and microCT data are used to visualize the pneumatized bones and to segment 3D digital surface models of the skeletal and respiratory systems. Specimens used in this study include the African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), ostrich (Struthio camelus), red‐tailed hawk. (Buteo jamaicensis), and tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus). We found substantial differences in the pneumatization patterns between the birds. In all taxa examined, there is an extensive supramedullary diverticulum that travels through the vertebral canal which directly pneumatizes each vertebra in the parrots but does not contribute to any pneumatization in the swan or hawk. The sacral, pelvic, and femoral elements are pneumatized solely by pelvic diverticula in the ostrich, but predominantly by the abdominal sacs in parrots. These data indicate that the pneumatization patterns in birds are highly variable and warrant further study.

ECG of the Month.

IntroductionA 26-year-old 290-g female Timneh African grey parrot (Psittacus timneh) was presented to the Colorado State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital for CT as part of radiation planning for treatment of a right periocular mass, suspected to be a squamous cell carcinoma.On initial evaluation, the bird was bright, alert, and responsive and had a body condition score of 2/9. On physical examination, there was severe periocular swelling around the right eye causing the palpebral fissure to be held shut. Thoracic auscultation was performed with a neonatal stethoscope with the diaphragm placed directly over the keel of the

2D and 3D visualizations of archosaur jaw muscle mechanics, ontogeny and phylogeny using ternary diagrams and 3D modeling.

Comparing patterns of performance and kinematics across behavior, development and phylogeny is crucial to understand the evolution of complex musculoskeletal systems such as the feeding apparatus. However, conveying 3D spatial data of muscle orientation throughout a feeding cycle, ontogenetic pathway or phylogenetic lineage is essential to understanding the function and evolution of the skull in vertebrates. Here, we detail the use of ternary plots for displaying and comparing the 3D orientation of muscle data. First, we illustrate changes in 3D jaw muscle resultants during jaw closing taxa the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Second, we show changes in 3D muscle resultants of jaw muscles across an ontogenetic series of alligators. Third, we compare 3D resultants of jaw muscles of avian-line dinosaurs, including extant (Struthio camelus, Gallus gallus, Psittacus erithacus) and extinct (Tyrannosaurus rex) species to outline the reorganization of jaw muscles that occurred along the line to modern birds. Finally, we compare 3D resultants of jaw muscles of the hard-biting species in our sample (A. mississippiensis, T. rex, P. erithacus) to illustrate how disparate jaw muscle resultants are employed in convergent behaviors in archosaurs. Our findings show that these visualizations of 3D components of jaw muscles are immensely helpful towards identifying patterns of cranial performance, growth and diversity. These tools will prove useful for testing other hypotheses in functional morphology, comparative biomechanics, ecomorphology and organismal evolution.