African American Student-athletes Research Articles

Cognitive Impairment Among Collegiate African American Student-Athletes Who Have One Or More Concussions

The purpose of this research was to examine concussion induced cognitive impairment among collegiate athletes for a long term. This study attempted to determine if there was a significant decrease in cognitive function in student-athletes with a history of concussion after one year of concussion. Totally 46 student athletes who were qualified was included in this study. Of all the 46 student athletes, 14 are females, and 32 males from the following sports: Women’s Basketball (n=3), Men’s Basketball (n=2), Football (n=30), Softball (n=7), Women’s Tennis (n=2), and Women’s Volleyball (n=2) (Table 1). The age range was18-23 years old. Seven of them had two or more concussions Results of this study showed that while all the scores of the ImPACT test improved after one year of concussion for the student-athletes with one or more concussions, there was significant improvement only in the processing speed. For the student-athletes with two or more concussions, the processing speed score after one year of concussions was a little lower even than the score after initial concussion, but it is not statistically significant.

Differences in Ethnic and Sport Culture Salience Among College Students Participating in NCAA and Recreational Sports

This study aims to (1) examine differences between Ethnic Majority (European American) and Ethnic Minority (African American, Latina/o, Asian/Asian American, Pacific Islander, and Other) student athletes’ ratings of importance of their Ethnic Culture, (2) examine differences in the importance of Sport Culture among NCAA and Recreational (i.e., Club and Intramural) student athletes, and (3) determine if Ethnic Identification and Athlete Type interact to predict the importance of Ethnic Culture and Sport Culture. Student athletes were asked to fill out a demographic questionnaire, and then rate the importance of several cultural domains (i.e. Ethnic Culture and Sport Culture) using a novel measure, the Cultural Domain Menu (CDM). After a descriptive analysis was performed, Analysis of Variances (ANOVA) and several t-tests were conducted to test differences among Ethnic Majority and Ethnic Minority student athletes in the importance of their Ethnic and Sport Cultures. Findings demonstrated a significant difference between Ethnic Majority and Ethnic Minority student athletes’ ratings of the importance of their Ethnic Culture: Ethnic Majority ratings were found to be lower compared to Ethnic Minority student athletes. Results also showed a significant difference between NCAA and Recreational student athletes in their ratings of their Sport Culture: NCAA student athletes were found to rank their Sport Culture as more salient. Implications, limitations, and future directions for this study are discussed in regard to the results. These results serve as a great indicator of the mental health issues of importance when aiming to serve student athletes from different backgrounds.

Becoming the “Ultimate Competitor”: African American Male Student Athletes’ Resolution for Academic Success in the Face of Adversity at NCAA Division I Predominantly White Institutions

This study investigated the academic experiences of nine African American male student athletes’ college experiences focusing on prior academic preparation and faculty expectations. Findings in this study illustrate significant heterogeneity and complexity among African American male student athletes, which challenges the current, over-simplified portrayal of their academic experience in higher education. Furthermore, this study highlights that facing racial stereotypes, African American student athletes found it essential to take charge of academic decisions (i.e. academic advising and facilitation of support services initiatives) and to build a team that supported their academic success.

The Mis-Education of the African American Student-Athlete

The African American male student-athlete occupies one of the most peculiar positions in American society. While lauded for their sport performance, they are often viewed as problematic in the broader society. While their performance generates millions of dollars for universities and the NCAA, for most, their labor often produces comparatively little personal gain. While they are recruited as student-athletes, they soon realize that the demands of their athletic commitment renders them athlete-students. Many outside of sport would argue that this is a choice and an informed decision. But we argue much of this is a consequence of the mis-education of the African American student-athlete. We examine this phenomenon through the lens of Critical Race Theory to provide an alternative view of the issues faced by African American student-athletes and suggest an alternative pedagogy that might be investigated to meet their needs.

Factors that Positively Affect Academic Performance of African American Football Student Athletes

The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that affected the academic persistence and graduation of African-American male student-athletes who participated in the sport of football at Southeastern Conference (SEC) institutions. This study differs from previous studies by concentrating on African-American male student-athletes who successfully navigated the academic processes of higher education and ultimately earned a degree. More often than not, research on the academic performance of African-American male student-athletes has been conceptualized from a deficit perspective focusing mainly on nonperformance. This study used a qualitative case study design to examine the experiences and perceptions related to academic persistence and graduation. Eighteen African-American males who are former student-athletes in the sport of football in the SEC and graduated were interviewed. A grounded theory approach was used in the analysis of the data. Six themes emerged from this study that appears central to the academic persistence and graduation of the student-athletes in this study. These themes are: (a) family member/significant other influence; (b) institutional commitment; (c) teammate influence/peer acceptance; (d) self-motivation; (e) fraternity influence; and (f) spirituality.

Racism and Stereotyping on Campus: Experiences of African American Male Student-Athletes

Reported cases of racially charged occurrences continue on college campuses. With Blackface party incidents and noose hangings making news at numerous universities all over the country, African American students at predominantly White institutions (PWIs) may face challenges beyond the academic scope of tests, papers, and projects (Costello, 2010; Strausbaugh, 2006; Teaching Tolerance, 2002; Van Kerckhove, 2007; Wade, 2011). Facing and coping with racism has been identified as a risk factor and an impediment of achievement for African American students at PWIs (Feagin, Hernan, & Imani, 1996).Graduation rates of college students are the most tangible measures of student outcomes and success. By this measure, African American male college students are considered one of the most at risk students on campus, having the lowest graduation rates of any other demographic group (The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2012). Similarly, as a faction of this group, African American male student-athletes' graduation rates are also of concern (Lapchick, 2010). In a recent longitudinal study of 76 universities in major Division I-A athletic conferences, only 50.2% of African American male student-athletes graduated within six years and 55.5% of African American men overall; this is in comparison to 66.9% of all student-athletes, 72.8% of undergraduate students overall (Harper, Williams, & Blackmon, 2013).Less than 4% of students at Division I universities are African American, while 61% of men's basketball players and 46% of football players are African American (Harper, Williams, & Blackmon, 2013; Lapchick, 2010). These statistics suggest that further study of African American male student-athletes is important because they comprise a substantial proportion of African American students on many college campuses. This study adds to the current body of literature by presenting a glimpse into experiences and possible risk factors of one of the most at-risk student groups on Division I campuses.Purpose of the StudyAfrican American male student-athletes have a unique experience on predominantly White college campuses (Anderson, 1996; Beamon, 2008). In addition to the isolation that many student-athletes often experience, African American male student-athletes must also contend with negative racial, gender, and athletic stereotypes. Due to the overrepresentation of African American males participating in collegiate and professional sports, it may appear that the athletic world is free from racial discrimination. However, racism and exploitation exist in several areas of college and professional sports. Examples are found in the lack of effort given to improve the educational success of African American student-athletes in comparison to their White counterparts, stacking African American athletes at skilled positions as opposed to thinking positions, the absence of African Americans in decision-making and leadership positions at universities and in professional leagues, labor exploitation, and even in the salaries and endorsement opportunities of professional athletes (Edwards, 2000; Eitzen, 2000; Hall, 2001; Hoberman, 1997; Kahn 1991). Student-athletes of color are said to face specific difficulties such as social and academic integration and racism (Person, Benson-Quaziena, & Rogers, 2001 ; Person & LeNoir, 1997).Scholarship exploring the experience of African Americans on predominantly white campuses has been presented by several researchers (Davis, 1995; Feagin & Sikes, 1995; Marcus et al., 2003; Smith, 2007; Thompson et al., 1990). However, this study fills a gap in the literature by acknowledging the uniqueness of high-profile African American male studentathletes' experiences. For the purposes of this study, high-profile is conceptualized as Division I athletes in revenue-generating sports such as men's basketball and football. College sports and sports history in general seems to be filled with stories and images of cultural pluralism, fairness, racial harmony, and color-blindness (Hylton, 2009); but what do the student-athletes themselves think? …

Meet Me at the Crossroads: African American Athletic and Racial Identity

How individuals define themselves has considerable implications within the realms of sport. Considering the large proportion of African Americans participating in high profile college sports, matters of identity likely become quite relevant. This article addresses issues related to athletic and racial identity contextualized in the sport domain. The potential relationship between athletic identity (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993) and the conceptualization of African American racial identity are explored. The framework of the Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI; Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, & Chavous, 1998) is used to investigate the potentially varied perceptions of African American collegiate student athletes' racial identities. Specifically, the salience and centrality of athletic identity, in addition, the roles that the multiple ideologies of the MMRI may play in sport are discussed. Directions for future research of the intersection of race and sport are forwarded.

Living the dream or awakening from the nightmare: race and athletic identity

Education is often viewed as the door that leads out of poverty for many students of color. But for many African American boys and young men, the dream of becoming a professional athlete is a door that appears to be wide open. Considering the over‐representation of African American athletes in revenue‐producing sports in colleges, universities and at the professional ranks, it is no surprise that many African American male youth develop aspirations for, and identify with the athletic role. These aspirations may become even more focused and intense if they ascend to the level of division I college athletes. The identification with the athlete role is likely to intensify as they get closer to the goal of professional sport. Most individuals occupy multiple identities or roles in life such as sibling, student, spouse, employee, athlete, etc. Identity salience and strength depends on the importance of that role. Athletic identity has been defined as the degree to which an individual identifies with the athletic role. Few studies have examined the impact and influences of race on athletic role identification. This study explores the relationship between race and athletic identity. Division I‐A African American and Caucasian American football student–athletes’ responses to the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale were analyzed (Brewer, Raalte, and Linder 1993). Results indicated that African American football student–athletes have a stronger athletic identity compared to their Caucasian American counterparts. Differences in specific items on the scale indicated that African American student–athletes were more internally focused on their sport, felt that others perceive them only as athletes, and see sport as the focal point in their lives. Differences in these items and implications of these results suggest that there is a potential impact on academic achievement and the student–athlete’s aspirations.

African American Student Athletes' Perceptions of Career Transition in Sport: A Qualitative and Visual Elicitation

The study focuses on 26 African American athletes and explores their perceptions of athletic career transition. Participants consisted of student athletes from a United States National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division IIA institution in the Southeastern region. Participants completed the Life After Sports Scale (LASS), a 58-item inventory utilized to qualitative domain of the LASS in which participants were visually primed with a narrative description of a student athlete that has made transition out of sport successfully. Five major themes emerged from the African American student athletes' perception of the career transition process: Inspirational Imagery Validation, Academic and Athletic Success, Classroom Accomplishments, Family Devotion, and Life After Sports. These themes are discussed in relation to relevant career development theories, athletic identity theory from the sport psychology literature, and applicable race and racial theories to sport in higher education. Future research directions and limitations are articulated.

The Effect of the Economic Downturn on College Athletes and Athletic Departments on Issues of Diversity and Inclusion

In this paper I review the current and potential future effect of the economic downturn on matters of diversity and inclusion. I discuss reasons for cautious optimism in minority and female hiring patterns—both in the areas of athletic leadership and coaching. But this progress is uneven and tenuous. Special attention, I argue, is needed for the growing academic performance gap between white and African-American student athletes. Any economically-driven cuts in academic support and life skills education could exacerbate this problem. I conclude that the economic downturn, to date, does not appear to have had a major effect on diversity and inclusion. However, because periods of economic crisis typically have a greater negative impact on minorities than others, we need to carefully monitor athletic and academic programs from high school through college and continue to advocate for this “fragile ideal” of racial and gender equality.

Perceived Opportunities and Barriers to Employment in the Football Coaching Profession: Differences between NCAA Division I-A African-American and Caucasian Football Student-Athletes

Perceived Opportunities and Barriers to Employment in the Football Coaching Profession: Differences between NCAA Division I-A African-American and Caucasian Football Student-Athletes

Using Identities to Explore Social Capital Differences Among White and African American Student Athletes

Research suggests African American male student-athletes tend to overemphasize their athlete role to the detriment of their academic performance (Harrison 2000). This article extends the literature by examining racial differences in the development of social capital among student-athletes. Results showed racial differences with White student-athletes reporting higher social network totals, trust, and overall social capital. Yet, no significant differences existed amongst student-athletes in either team social networks or team social capital. Results suggest African American athletes have developed a sense of reciprocity at the athletic team level, but this social capital does not extend beyond the sport team setting.

Perceiving Educational Policy through a Feminist Lens

Perceiving Educational Policy through a Feminist Lens

The Impact of Influential Others on the Sport Participation Patterns of African American Female Student-Athletes

In examining how Black women develop their sport identities, the current study involved focus group and individual interviews with 14 African American female National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I collegiate student-athletes. The researchers present data on the presence of influential others in the lives of the participants and the impact of factors such as economics, geography, and media coverage. Findings on the role of influential others were analyzed specifically to illumine the differing influence of a role models compared to that of a mentors as well as the race and gender dynamics involved. The interpretation of the results is focused on the current channels through which African American women are exposed to sport. Implications are made as they relate to Sport Management Research, Higher Education and Women in Collegiate Sport.

African American Student Athletes and Sports Media Consumption

This study measures the use of media for sports information among African American student athletes. Television was indicated as the primary source of sports information by about one third of the target group, whereas newspapers were used much less as a source. About one fourth got their information from multiple sources. A somewhat unexpected finding was the limited use of sports radio as a source. Female respondents used media less frequently for sports information compared to male athletes.

Listening to the Voices

“Women of color …have historically been silenced in society and sport” (Smith, 1992, p. 228). This study examined the sport participation patterns of 12 African American female collegiate student athletes using qualitative methods. Data were collected at a large midwestern university during the 1998—99 academic year. An emergent theme was the effect of silencing by the media, athletic administrators, coaches, and other student athletes on the experiences of African American female student athletes. The findings are presented in the following order: the theoretical framework for the study, an introduction to silencing, an overview of the research analyses, a description of the research setting, and a presentation of the data surrounding the theme of silencing as told through the participants' voices. Following these sections is a discussion and suggestions for future research.

Listening to the Voices: The Experiences of African American Female Student Athletes

Listening to the Voices: The Experiences of African American Female Student Athletes

Already aware of the glass ceiling: Race-related effects of perceived opportunity on the career choices of college athletes

Despite making strides with respect to sport participation, racial minorities continue to be under-represented in coaching and upper management positions within much of the sport world today. For example, African Americans constitute 78% of all National Basketball Association (NBA) players; however, only 34% of NBA teams are headed by an African American coach (Lapchick & Matthews, 2001). These inequities are also seen at the intercollegiate level. Although African American student-athletes represent 22.7% of all participants within the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), African Americans represent 7.5% of the head coaches and 13.7% of the assistant coaches of men's teams (Earle, 2000). The proportions are even more dismal for coaches of women's teams, as African Americans constitute only 4.7% of the head coaches and 5.8% of the assistant coaches (Earle, 2000). These proportions are even lower when historically African American institutions are excluded. If we fol low Everhart and Chetladurai's (1998) argument that "the most likely population from which coaches of a particular sport are drawn is the players of that sport" (p. 190), then we are able to see that inequities exist within the coaching ranks. There are some measures currently being taken to try to mitigate the under-representation of racial minorities within the coaching ranks. For example, Bud Selig, commissioner of Major League Baseball, actively encourages teams to diversify

African American Student Athletes' Perceptions of Career Transition in Sport: a qualitative and visual elicitation

This study focuses on 26 African American athletes and explores their perceptions of athletic career transition. Participants consisted of student athletes from a United States National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division IIA institution in the Southeastern region. Participants completed the Life After Sports Scale (LASS), a 58-item inventory utilized to qualitatively and quantitatively examine seven different domains which influence perceptions of the career transition process. The scope of this inquiry examines the qualitative domain of the LASS in which participants were visually primed with a narrative description of a student athlete that has made transition out of sport successfully. Five major themes emerged from the African American student athletes' perceptions of the career transition process: Inspirational Imagery Validation, Academic and Athletic Success, Classroom Accomplishments, Family Devotion, and Life After Sports. These themes are discussed in relation to relevant career development theories, athletic identity theory from the sport psychology literature, and applicable race and racial theories to sport in higher education. Future research directions and limitations are articulated.

“Going Pro”: the deferential effects of high aspirations for a professional sports career on African-American student athletes and White student athletes

Social scientists have long noted the effects of the images of the African-American male brought forth in popular culture. In fact, popular culture and organized sports have been credited as major contributors to many of the social problems that exist among African-American males. Those social problems are characterized in the oppositional relationship that has formed between athletic and academic achievement, and the high aspirations and expectations that African-American student athletes hold concerning professional sports. This study seeks to examine this phenomenon by identifying socializing agents and influences in the lives of this group that may propel them into holding these beliefs. In addition, the academic and behavioral affects of holding these beliefs will be examined. Several independent and dependent variables were studied. The data was collected from a Division I football team through the use of a survey designed by the researchers. Several interesting findings were yielded concerning the effects of parental emphasis of sports during the socialization process and the high rates of African-American football players who held beliefs in a professional sports careers when compared to their White teammates. Additionally, those beliefs were found to affect academic achievement and behavior.