African American Athletes Research Articles

African American Sports Journalists and Athletes as Foreign Correspondents for the Black Press, 1930-1950

ABSTRACT Sports journalists and athletes acted as foreign correspondents for the U.S. black press in the early to mid-twentieth century. During this period, hundreds of African American baseball players left the United States to participate in Latin American leagues. Inspired by their journeys, sportswriters used the ballplayers’ transnational movement to explore sport and society in other parts of the Americas. From their correspondences with the athletes combined with their journeys abroad, sports journalists observed and documented the ballplayers’ international experiences for audiences at home. Additionally, some athletes, including Jackie Robinson, wrote featured stories for news publications, serving as de-facto correspondents in the process. This article suggests that by looking to the sports pages, scholars can locate alternative ways that black Americans learned about global conceptions of race and the color line in print media during the first half of the twentieth century.

The Policing of Patriotism: African American Athletes and the Expression of Dissent

Abstract From the “Noble Experiment” of baseball player Jackie Robinson to the national anthem protests initiated by football player Colin Kaepernick, the manner in which African American athletes have responded to demands that they demonstrate their patriotism has been critiqued and regulated at every turn. This article seeks to chronicle that history, by exploring the experiences not only of Robinson and Kaepernick but all African Americans who, throughout the history of sport, have challenged preconceived notions and displays of patriotism. This includes boxer Muhammad Ali and sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos, among several lesser-known figures. What is remarkable is the connective tissue, the degree to which the activism of athletes from Robinson to Kaepernick, and the reactions to it, has not fundamentally altered in seven decades.

Etiology of Sudden Cardiac Arrest and Death in US Competitive Athletes: A 2-Year Prospective Surveillance Study.

To determine the etiology of sudden cardiac arrest and death (SCA/D) in competitive athletes through a prospective national surveillance program. Sudden cardiac arrest and death cases in middle school, high school, college, and professional athletes were identified from July 2014 to June 2016 through traditional and social media searches, reporting to the National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research, communication with state and national high school associations, review of the Parent Heart Watch database, and search of student-athlete deaths on the NCAA Resolutions List. Autopsy reports and medical records were reviewed by a multidisciplinary panel to determine the underlying cause. US competitive athletes with SCA/D. Etiology of SCA/D. A total of 179 cases of SCA/D were identified (74 arrests with survival, 105 deaths): average age 16.6 years (range 11-29), 149 (83.2%) men, 94 (52.5%) whites, and 54 (30.2%) African American. One hundred seventeen (65.4%) had an adjudicated diagnosis, including 83 deaths and 34 survivors. The most common etiologies included hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (19, 16.2%), coronary artery anomalies (16, 13.7%), idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy/possible cardiomyopathy (13, 11.1%), autopsy-negative sudden unexplained death (8, 6.8%), Wolff-Parkinson-White (8, 6.8%), and long QT syndrome (7, 6.0%). Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy was more common in male basketball (23.3%), football (25%), and African American athletes (30.3%). An estimated 56.4% of cases would likely demonstrate abnormalities on an electrocardiogram. The etiology of SCA/D in competitive athletes involves a wide range of clinical disorders. More robust reporting mechanisms, standardized autopsy protocols, and accurate etiology data are needed to better inform prevention strategies.

Differential Gut Scfa Microbial Taxa Correlated With Blood Pressure Status In African American Collegiate Athletes

INTRODUCTION: The gut microbiome and reduced short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) producing microbes have been related to hypertension status in sedentary individuals. Hypertension is common amongst athletes and epidemiologic data reports that cardiovascular sudden death is more common in African Americans (AA) (5-fold), compared to whites, and is related to the elevated prevalence of hypertension independently in athletes and in AA. Exercise is generally known to reduce blood pressure (BP) and stimulates beneficial changes in the gut microbiome to promote gut health (increasing gut SCFA), but it is unknown whether there are differential gut microbial characteristics related to BP status in athletes. PURPOSE: To determine gut microbial characteristics related to gut SCFA in AA collegiate athletes with and without hypertension and identify specific microbial taxa related to BP status. METHODS: The present work included 30 AA collegiate athletes stratified by normal BP (systolic BP (SBP) ≤129 mmHg; n=15) and high BP (SBP ≥130 mmHg; n=15) and we performed 16S rRNA gene sequencing on fecal samples. RESULTS: Relative to BP status, we did not observe any significant differences in alpha or beta diversity, or operational taxonomic units (OTUs). However, we observed that SCFA producing microbes were differentially abundant between the 2 groups and the relative abundance of some microbes were significantly correlated with systolic BP (g_Lactococcus, R=0.5 p=0.0074; g_Aldercruetzia, R=0.59 p=0.001; g_Paraprevotella, R=-0.38 p=0.044; g_cc_115, R=0.41 p=0.29). CONCLUSION: We report that SCFA producing microbes were differentially abundant in AA collegiate athletes stratified by BP status. Although exercise training broadly increases SCFA microbes in the gut, identification of microbial community characteristics and specific taxa will provide insight into gut microbial functional profiles related to greater BP in AA collegiate athletes.

Ebony Jr! Race, Meritocracy, and Sports in African American Children’s Media

Abstract This paper examines the relationship between race and sport in African American children’s media in the publication Ebony Jr! (1973-85). Through sport, Ebony Jr! promoted an ideology of meritocracy and heralded the values of hard work and self-determination, the importance of the family unit, and investment in middle-class leisure practices. While these values were present in Ebony, content in the magazine for adults also addressed issues plaguing African American athletes, such as discrimination and the discourse of essentialized racism. Ebony Jr! primarily erased narratives of oppression within profiles of athletes and crafted childhood as a protected space by imagining sport as a meritocratic space for black-child readers. I argue for the importance of including childhood and youth studies perspectives within the field of sport history and examine children’s media as valuable texts for understanding the transmission of ideologies regarding race and sport.

Sink or swim: career narratives of two African American athletes from underserved communities in the United States

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to explore the career narratives of professional athletes from underserved communities in the United States. Two African American athletes (named Marcus and Imari for the study), who both met the criteria of playing at least one year in a professional league and spending their formative years in an underserved community, participated in this study. Life story interviews lasting about two hours were explored through the principles of narrative analysis, focusing on both content and structure. Each participant constructed a sink or swim narrative typology termed risk, descent, and gain that focused more on the environmental context in an underserved community than their athletic development, which opposes the performance narrative often depicted by professional athletes. Although the contextualised nature of risk manifested differently for Marcus and Imari, their life courses both reflected low points precipitated by risky decisions or circumstances followed by gainful moments ultimately culminating in professional contracts. The analysis also uncovered the realities and challenges associated with having the intersecting identity of being a poor, Black aspiring athlete in a racially charged atmosphere. Finally, the athletes’ perceptions of how their challenging formative development influenced their professional career pathway as well as the ramifications of sink or swim narratives in popular American culture are considered.

Royce White, DeMar DeRozan and Media Framing of Mental Health in the NBA

This study analyzed media framing of two players from the National Basketball Association (NBA), Royce White and DeMar DeRozan, who both publicly addressed their mental health concerns within the last decade. Due to societal stigmas, such a public conversation was once a rarity in the NBA, making their discussion of mental health a worthy area of examination. A media framing analysis of 58 press articles for White and 42 articles for DeRozan revealed six frames for each athlete used to discuss their situation. Despite both being African American athletes playing the same sport, they were covered differently. Analysis discovered that frames for White, a first-year player who wanted changes in the system of how the NBA handled mental health, most commonly focused on him and his specific situation, while frames for DeRozan, an NBA All-Star who positioned himself solely as an advocate, most frequently discussed shedding the stigma of mental health and the increased awareness surrounding the topic. Additionally, while there were frames critical of White, there were no such frames for DeRozan. Still, for both players, this type of coverage humanizes the experience of mental health and leads to important insights about changes in masculinity among athletes.

Sudden Death Associated With Sickle Cell Trait Before and After Mandatory Screening.

Sickle cell trait (SCT) has been associated with an increased risk of sudden death in athletes during strenuous exercise. In August 2010, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) began requiring athletes to be screened for SCT, provide proof of SCT status, or sign a waiver and launched an educational campaign for athletes, coaches, and medical staff. The impact of this program is unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of death associated with sickle cell trait (daSCT) in NCAA athletes before and after legislation. NCAA SCT legislation will decrease the incidence of daSCT. Observational study. Level 2. A database of NCAA athlete deaths from 2000 to 2019 was reviewed for daSCT. A total of 8,309,050 athlete-years (AY) were included. Incidence of death was calculated before and after legislation. The incidence of daSCT in Division I (DI) football athletes before legislation (n = 9) was 1:28,145 AY and after legislation (n = 1) was 1:250,468 AY (relative risk [RR], 0.112; 95% CI, 0.003-0.811; P = 0.022), an 89% reduction in risk after legislation was enacted. The incidence of daSCT in African American DI football athletes before legislation (n = 9) was 1:12,519 AY and after legislation (n = 1) was 1:118,464 AY (RR, 0.106; 95% CI, 0.002-0.763; P = 0.017), also an 89% risk reduction after legislation was enacted. For all NCAA athletes, the incidence of daSCT was 1:489,749 AY before legislation (n = 10) and 1:1,705,780 AY after legislation (n = 2) (RR, 0.288; 95% CI, 0.031-1.347; P = 0.146). The incidence of daSCT in DI football athletes has decreased significantly since legislation was enacted. Cases of daSCT outside of football are rare. It is unclear whether the decrease is related to screening for SCT, education, or both. This is the first evidence that NCAA SCT legislation may save lives.

Milt Campbell: Olympic Decathlon Champion “Famous for not being Famous”

Abstract Milt Campbell, an outstanding African American athlete from Plainfield, New Jersey, captured the silver medal in the decathlon in the 1952 Olympic Games in Helsinki and garnered the gold medal in the same event in the 1956 Olympic Games in Melbourne. Despite these great performances, Campbell is arguably the least known of all the decathlon gold medalists from the United States and was very slow to receive the honors and awards he deserved relative to his Olympic triumphs in track and field’s most grueling event. This essay assesses the possible reasons why Campbell received belated honors and has been lost from historical memory, ultimately contending that it resulted from the years he spent living in Canada in relative obscurity, his outspoken position on racial issues, his tendency to shun the spotlight, and a combination of other factors.

Oatmeal is better than no meal: the career pathways of African American male professional athletes from underserved communities in the United States

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to explore career pathways to athletic success in American professional athletes with low socioeconomic background. Ten African American professional male athletes, who met the criteria of playing at least one year in a professional league and spending their formative years in an American underserved community, participated in the study. Interviews inspired by the cultural praxis of athletes’ careers, lasted 68–137 minutes, and the transcripts were thematically analysed. Four career stages (childhood years, middle/high school years, college years, professional years) and three themes (context, challenges, coping) were visible in the career pathways of the participants. During the first stage, the athletes’ athletic foundation was developed by participating in inexpensive, easy to access sports in unstructured sporting environments, while simultaneously relying upon the strength of a mother to keep them safe. An increased susceptibility to the dangers of environmental factors (e.g., drugs, gangs) during the middle/high school years made this period of time the most precarious for the athletes, but was also the most crucial for their athletic development. The college years were a time of “catching up,” whereby the athletes entered a whole new environment for which they were physically (e.g., underweight) and psycho-socially (e.g., racial integration) unprepared, but their hard work and the help of peers and coaches propelled them to success (i.e., professional contract). Finally, the results indicate that coping resources the athletes developed dealing with hardship were perceived as key factors enabling them to endure the difficulties of a professional career.

Sharaf Rashidov and the international dimensions of Soviet Uzbekistan

ABSTRACT During the Cold War, Sharaf Rashidov became a representative of the Soviet anti-imperialist agenda, a key interlocutor with Third World leaders and a promoter of Uzbekistan as a modern and emancipated model of political, economic, social and cultural development for newly independent countries emerging from decolonization. Tashkent hosted important meetings among Soviet and Asian leaders, along with international festivals of cinema and literature, which attracted hundreds of Asian, African and Latin American intellectuals, writers, poets, journalists, trade unionists and athletes. Moreover, Uzbekistan came to symbolize the self-proclaimed compatibility between communism and Islam, offering a façade of religious freedom, tolerance and tradition combined with Bolshevik progress. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan discredited this narrative – and Uzbekistan and (posthumously) Rashidov were humiliated in the Cotton Affair – pointing to the impact as well as the limits of Uzbek internationalism.

The Policing of Patriotism: African American Athletes and the Expression of Dissent

The Policing of Patriotism: African American Athletes and the Expression of Dissent

Tau pathology in the medial temporal lobe of athletes with chronic traumatic encephalopathy: a chronic effects of neurotrauma consortium study

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a progressive neurodegenerative condition associated with repetitive traumatic brain injury (rTBI) seen in contact-sport athletes and military personnel. The medial temporal lobe (MTL; i.e., hippocampus, subiculum, and entorhinal and perirhinal cortices) memory circuit displays tau lesions during the pathological progression of CTE. We examined MTL tissue obtained from 40 male Caucasian and African American athletes who received a postmortem CTE neuropathological diagnosis defined as stage II, III, or IV. Sections were immunolabeled using an early (AT8) or a late (TauC3) marker for pathological tau and for amyloid beta (Aβ) species (6E10, Aβ1–42 and thioflavin S). Stereological analysis revealed that stage III had significantly less AT8-positive neurons and dystrophic neurites than stage IV in all MTL regions except hippocampal subfield CA3, whereas significantly more AT8-positive neurons, dystrophic neurites, and neurite clusters were found in the perirhinal cortex, entorhinal cortex, hippocampal CA1, and subiculum of CTE stage III compared with stage II. TauC3-positive pathology was significantly higher in the perirhinal and subicular cortex of stage IV compared to stage III and the perirhinal cortex of stage III compared to stage II. AT8-positive neurite clusters were observed in stages III and IV, but virtually absent in stage II. When observed, Aβ pathology appeared as amyloid precursor protein (APP)/Aβ (6E10)-positive diffuse plaques independent of region. Thioflavine S labeling, did not reveal evidence for fibril or neuritic pathology associated with plaques, confirming a diffuse, non-cored plaque phenotype in CTE. Total number of AT8-positive profiles correlated with age at death, age at symptom onset, and time from retirement to death. There was no association between AT8-positive tau pathology and age sport began, years played, or retirement age, and no difference between CTE stage and the highest level of sport played. In summary, our findings demonstrate different tau profiles in the MTL across CTE stages, proffering CA3 tau pathology and MTL dystrophic neurite clusters as possible markers for the transition between early (II) and late (III/IV) stages, while highlighting CTE as a progressive noncommunicative tauopathy.

High School Football and the Athletic-Market Economy: Recruiting, Producing, and Manufacturing Talent

There are two cultural narratives often purported within the American sports cultures of basketball and football. First, those participating within these sports are African American athletes from poor communities lacking educational and economic opportunities. Second, the meritocratic myth perpetuating American society feeds the notion no matter where an individual is from their talent will elevate them to the next level. There have already been a few studies who have challenged these myths. This study seeks to continue the conversation by collecting community data on 7,670 high school football recruits for the years 2000 to 2016. This study seeks to provide a broad overview of the interscholastic football landscape as well as determine production levels of schools. This study finds that while players are recruited from a diverse range of communities and school types, as a school becomes more productive they tend to be located within wealthier urban communities, have a diverse student body, and have a higher likelihood of being a private school.

Artifacts and the Academic Motivation of African American Male Athletes

This study sought to examine to examine the academic motivations of African American male college athletes at a historically Black college and university (HBCU). Self-determination theory (SDT) was incorporated as the theoretical framework. Data were collected via artifacts from seven African American male college athletes at a HBCU in the mid-southern region of the United States. Explanation of the artifacts by the participants revealed that they were motivated by their family, their faith, and their resiliency. Findings, and their implications for research and practice, are discussed and presented.

Comparison of knee valgus motion in African American male and female collegiate athletes

Knee joint valgus is often implicated as a hazardous position for the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and has been linked to ACL injury risk. Although several groups have previously examined racially diverse cohorts to determine if there are predispositions for injury, there is little evidence found that explore sex differences in valgus angles in African American athletes. The purpose of this study was to identify the difference of the knee valgus angles between African American male (AAM) and female (AAF) student-athletes. Eighty-five National Collegiate Athletic Association, Division II African American male (n=36) and female (n=49) student-athletes participated in this study. Subjects dropped directly down off a box and immediately performed a maximum vertical jump. Valgus and flexion angles were analyzed and calculated based on the relationship of the tangent for each image. Knee valgus angles were significantly different between AAM and AAF athletes both at initial contact and maximum valgus displacement (p<.05). Significant differences in knee flexion angle was observed with the AAM having greater Initial Contact knee flexion (p<.05). The current data indicates that sex differences, specifically increased knee valgus angles, exist during jumping and landing. Neuromuscular training programs should be designed to specifically address excessive valgus knee motion and improve landing knee flexion among these athletes.

SAT-LB093 Salty Relationships with Bone: Not Calcium nor Vitamin D

Previous studies demonstrated a positive relationship between blood sodium concentration and bone mineral density (BMD) in ultramarathon runners following a 100-mile race (1) and a negative relationship in walkers (treadmill walking for 45-minutes) following an oral sodium load (2). However, accurate assessment of sweat sodium concentration ([Na+]) was absent in those exercise studies. Therefore, the primary aim of these pilot data were to assess potential relationships between sweat [Na+] versus bone mineral content (BMC) at rest. We hypothesized that higher sweat [Na+] would be associated with lower BMC in athletes participating in a larger vitamin D supplementation trial. The current data represent a cross-sectional baseline assessment whereas: sweat [Na+] was obtained via pilocarpine iontophoresis (Wescor), total body BMC, fat and lean mass obtained via dual energy x-ray absorptiometry scan (Hologic), serum 25-OH vitamin D (25-OH-D) obtained via venipuncture (Cobas E Immunoassay), and dietary intake assessed via 3-month Food Frequency questionnaire (NutritionQuest). Twenty-two male (n=13) and female (n=9) collegiate basketball players completed baseline testing (20±2years). Significant relationships between total body BMC vs. sweat [Na+] (r=0.54;p=0.01) and total lean mass (r=0.93;p<0.01) were documented, but not between total BMC vs. 25-OH-D (r=-0.30;NS), vitamin D intake (r=-0.17;NS), calcium intake (r=0.16;NS), or sodium intake (r=0.22;NS). African-American athletes (n=14) had significantly lower 25-OH-D levels vs. Caucasian athletes (28±11 vs. 44±15ng/mL;p=0.01), respectively. Male vs. female differences noted in: sweat [Na+] (51±15 vs. 33±11mmol/L;p=0.006), total body BMD (1.35±0.11 vs. 1.19±0.06g/cm2;p=0.001), fat mass (14.9±0.45 vs. 19.8±4.5kg;p=0.009) and lean mass (71.7±8.0 vs. 55.9±6.0kg;p<0.001). Total body BMC was positively related to sweat [Na+], and not calcium intake nor 25-OH-D in this small cohort of healthy collegiate athletes. However, the direction of this relationship was opposite of expected (i.e. higher sweat sodium losses would be associated with lower, not higher, bone mineral). These data cautiously suggest sweat sodium output may represent an extrarenal mechanism to excrete excess sodium ingested. We believe these pilot data are worthy of expansion, involving rigorous endocrine evaluation, and of particular relevance to African-Americans with paradoxically low 25-OH-D and high BMD.

The Olympic “Revolt” of 1968 and its Lessons for Contemporary African American Athletic Activism

This overview of the 1968 African American Olympic protest movement provides historical context and a comparative touchstone for understanding the current wave of Black athletic activism in the United States. At a basic level, the exercise reminds us that sport-based activism is not unprecedented and, when it emerges, tends to be connected with the larger social movements of the day (the Civil Rights movement in the 1960s and Black Lives Matter more recently). The comparison also shows contemporary activism to be the biggest and broadest mobilization of African American athletes and their supporters in American history, propelled especially by the participation of women and athletes across multiple sports and levels of participation. However, athletic activism remains as polarizing as ever and the most significant impacts of athletic activism still appear to be primarily symbolic or cultural. The final section of the paper highlights the cultural dimensions of sport—its “serious play” status, normative prohibitions against politics, and its individualistic, colorblind visions of race and social justice—that make athletically-based activism of all sorts challenging.

U.S. public diplomacy and sports stars: mobilizing African-American athletes as goodwill ambassadors from the cold war to an uncertain future

The United States has diverse options in the projection of public diplomacy ranging across the spectrum from risk-averse to risk-oriented strategies. A significant test highlights the use of the deep pool of the U.S. star athletes generally and African-American athletes more specifically. During the Cold War era, a conformist style was privileged in the U.S. State Department goodwill ‘ambassador’ program. Yet, paralleling the overall trajectory of celebrity diplomats, significant gaps can be located in this risk-averse culture. With this unevenness in mind, the article look back to see what lessons or parallels can be taken from earlier initiatives. At a moment marked by the populism of the Trump administration and the environment of intensified racial polarization, it is unlikely that any new connection between African-American athletes and a new public diplomacy strategy will fit into a recalibrated conformist model. Even if it is a sharper break from past experiences, however, the constant is that this category of individuals—especially the high-profile African-American sports stars—remains a huge asset if the U.S. State Department has the desire and ability to tap into this talent pool under different political conditions in the future.

Comparison of Body Composition, Eating Habits, Exercise Habits, High Risk Behaviors in a Tri-Racial Group of College Female Athletes

There is a lack of information in Hispanic American (HA) athletes regarding body weight concerns, eating habits, exercise habits, and high-risk behaviors. The aim of this study was to compare body composition, eating habits, exercise habits, and high-risk behavior in Caucasian American (CA), African American (AA), and HA female athletes. Being Hispanic significantly contributed to the variance in physical characteristics (p<0.01 for all) and variables related to body weight concerns (p<0.05 for all), eating habits (p<0.05 for all), exercise habits (p<0.05 for all), and high-risk behaviors (p<0.05 for all). These results demonstrated that HA female athletes had significantly different behaviors than CA and AA female athletes