Africa Suffers Research Articles

Two new Later Stone Age sites from the Final Pleistocene in the Falémé Valley, eastern Senegal.

The understanding of cultural dynamics at work at the end of the Final Pleistocene in West Africa suffers from a significant lack of excavated and dated sites, particularly in the Sahelian and Sudanian ecozones. While the Later Stone Age shows varied behavioral developments in different parts of the continent, the chrono-cultural framework of this period remains largely unknown in West Africa. We report on archaeological, geomorphological, and chronological research on two Final Pleistocene Later Stone Age sites in the Falémé Valley, eastern Senegal. Optically stimulated luminescence ages place the site of Toumboura I-2017 between 17 ± 1 and 16 ± 1 ka and the Ravin de Sansandé site between 13 ± 1 ka and 12 ± 1.1 ka. The excavated lithics show typical Later Stone Age industries, characterized by chaînes opératoires of core reduction mainly producing flakes and bladelets as well as blades and laminar flakes. Segments dominate the toolkits but a few backed bladelets and end-scrapers on flake blanks were recognized. Local raw materials were used, with a preference for chert and quartz, as well as greywacke. These Later Stone Age lithic assemblages are the oldest known in Senegal so far and add to the small number of sites known in West Africa for this period, which are mainly located farther south, in sub-tropical ecozones. The Later Stone Age sites of the Falémé Valley are contemporaneous with typical Middle Stone Age technologies in Senegal dated to at least the Pleistocene/Holocene transition. Our results thus provide new archaeological evidence highlighting the complex cultural processes at work during the Final Pleistocene in West Africa.

Spatiotemporal analysis of absorbing aerosols and radiative forcing over environmentally distinct stations in East Africa during 2001–2018

East Africa (EA) suffers from the inadequate characterization of atmospheric aerosols, with far-reaching consequences of its inability to quantify precisely the impacts of these particles on regional climate. The current study aimed at characterizing absorption and radiative properties of aerosols using the long-term (2001–2018) AErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET) and Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA-2) data over three environmentally specific sites in EA. The annual mean absorption aerosol optical depth (AAOD440 nm), absorption Angstrom Exponent (AAE440−870 nm), total effective radius (REff), and total volume concentration (μm3/μm2) revealed significant spatial heterogeneity over the domain. The study domain exhibited a significant contribution of fine-mode aerosols compared to the coarse-mode particles. The monthly variation in SSA440 nm over EA explains the strength in absorption aerosols that range from moderate to strong absorbing aerosols. The aerosols exhibited significant variability over the study domain, with the dominance of absorbing fine-mode aerosols over Mbita accounting for ∼40 to ∼50 %, while weakly absorbing coarse-mode particles accounted for ∼8.2 % over Malindi. The study conclusively determined that Mbita was dominated by AAOD mainly from biomass burning in most of the months, whereas Malindi was coated with black carbon. The direct aerosol radiative forcing (DARF) retrieved from both the AERONET and MERRA-2 models showed strong cooling at the top of the atmosphere (TOA; −6 to −27 Wm−2) and the bottom of the atmosphere (BOA, −7 to −66 Wm−2). However, significant warming was noticed within the atmosphere (ATM; +14 to +76 Wm−2), an indication of the role of aerosols in regional climate change. The study contributed to understanding aerosol absorption and radiative characteristics over EA and can form the basis of other related studies over the domain and beyond.

Maritime strategy in Africa: strategic flaws exposing Africa to vulnerabilities from food insecurity to external domination

Is maritime strategy in Africa fit for purpose? Africa has generally sought maritime security through international law, cooperation and diplomacy in the post-Cold War US-led international order. However, the rise of China and the resurgence of Russia challenge the US-led order, raising questions about the fitness of Africa’s strategic orientation in the maritime domain. This article evaluates Africa’s maritime strategy, theory and practice, to determine its suitability for Africa’s maritime strategic environment, at the beginning of the third decade of the twenty-first century. It argues that Africa’s current maritime strategy is unsuitable for its maritime security – as an element of national and regional security. The argument rests on the findings that: (1) Africa suffers from low maritime domain awareness, (2) it has not shaken off its historical seablindness, (3) Africa in general and individual African states retain little or no seapower and take few practical steps to address the situation, and (4) Africa suffers persistent challenges in exploiting and securing maritime wealth. The AU’s Africa’s Integrated Maritime Strategy is a wish list with no realistic or practical steps to its realisation.

Pattern and Trends in Adult Hospitalization/Admission and Mortality Among Medical Ward Inpatients at Gadarif Hospital in Eastern Sudan: A Four-Year Retrospective Study.

PurposeSub-Saharan Africa suffers from a dual impact of communicable (CDs) and non-communicable diseases (NCDs). There is scarce data on causes, trends of admission, and deaths among patients in Sudan. We aimed to determine the causes, trends of admission, and mortality among adult patients admitted to Gadarif Hospital in Eastern Sudan.Patients and MethodsThe medical records of adult patients admitted to Gadarif medical wards from January 2017 to December 2020 were reviewed for age, gender, causes of admission, and outcomes. Multivariate Cox regression analysis was used to analysis factors (age, sex, years, and disease) associated with the mortality.ResultsOf the 7230 patients who were admitted, 2221 (34.7%) were females and 5009 (69.3%) were males. The median age (interquartile range, IQR) was 47.0 (35.0) years. Of these 7230 patients, 3167 (43.8%) and 4063 (56.2%) patients were admitted with CDs and NCDs, respectively. Cardiovascular diseases (18.4%), snakebites (12.9%), and visceral leishmaniasis (12.0%) were the most common causes of admission. The overall in-patient adult deaths were 674 (9.3%). Cardiovascular diseases (22.3%), neurological diseases (16.9%), sepsis (15.9%), renal diseases (13.9%), and snakebites (8.3%) were the most common causes of inpatient mortality. Malignancy (20.7%), sepsis (20.9%), neurological diseases (17.4%), and cardiovascular diseases (13.8%) comprised the highest case fatality rates among the admitted patients. Using a Cox regression model (adjusted), age (adjusted hazard ratio = 1.02, 95% confidence interval = 1.01‒1.03) was associated with increased mortality hazard. However, the gender and years of admission were not associated with increased mortality hazard.ConclusionAdmissions and mortality rates for CDs and NCDs are high compared with other African countries. Preventive measures are required to avert the high burden of these diseases. Health care systems in Sudan need to be prepared to deal with the dual burden of the diseases.

Confident or captured? Commercial producers in South Africa

PurposeAmong the many things that land reform in South Africa suffers from is the lack of scientific attention paid to the willingness of commercial producers to exit or contract. This research aims to contribute to literature on this phenomenon.Design/methodology/approachThe interplay between the business confidence and the opportunity costs of a farming enterprise represented in a survey sample of 450 commercial farm owners is investigated, paying special attention to owners who want to, but cannot exit.FindingsThe regression analysis suggests that both forces have a strong influence on structural change, as they depict the rather complex interplay between the two main factors that may keep farms in business, one of which is a positive business climate and the other the capital invested. A subsequent cluster analysis indicates that there is a major cluster of producers who are pessimistic about the prospects of their farming business, but who are unable or unwilling to leave their farms.Research limitations/implicationsA limitation of our study is the fairly small sample size (91 exiters in the sample), so caution is advised in generalising the results. Another limitation is the overrepresentation of the Western Cape.Practical implicationsIt is likely that the productivity of South African agriculture could improve if some of these producers caught in the “system” could leave farming to create new opportunities for entrepreneurial entrants.Originality/valueThe importance of a captured state has been neglected both in theoretical frameworks and in practical concepts of commercial agriculture in South Africa.

7 - Wars as Postcolonial African Illness in Uzodinma Iweala's Beasts of No Nation


 
 
 There has always been a war somewhere in the world among Homo sapiens, allegedly the most advanced species in the universe. In Africa, right on the heels of colonialism and the celebration of independence loom the devastation and desolation of war. It is not a sweeping statement to conclude that everywhere colonialism has touched in Africa and let go, ruthless tribal wars have followed suit. The thematic preoccupation of the post-war literature is the training of children, mostly boys, to kill, in the form of the phenomenon of the ‘child soldier’. This article argues that one of the extreme cases of geopolitical illness that Africa suffers is the prominence of war in the turbulent journeys of her nation-states to nationhood. The article also examines the psychological implications of wars and bloodshed on the lives of children, who ought to be protected, which results in illness behaviours. We explore these themes with close reference to Uzodinma Iweala’s Beasts of No Nation.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Omon Osiki, Department of History and Strategic Studies, University of Lagos, Nigeria. Email: omonosiki@gmail.com
 Sola Owonibi, Department of English Studies, Adekunle Ajasin University, Nigeria. Email: solaowonibi@gmail.com; olaowonibi@gmail.com
 Oluyinka Ojedokun, Department of Pure & Applied Psychology, Adekunle Ajasin University, Nigeria. Email: yinkaoje2004@yahoo.com; inkaoje2004@yahoo.com
 
 

An intersectional gender analysis of familial and socio-cultural drivers of inequitable scientific career progression of researchers in Sub-Saharan Africa

BackgroundSub-Saharan Africa (SSA) suffers from a dearth of concrete information on the causes of women’s under-representation in scientific research workforce particularly at higher levels compared with the wealth of information that exists in the global north. The goal of this study was to illuminate familial and socio-cultural drivers that contribute to intersectional gender inequities in scientific career progression in SSA to inform strategies that could promote career equity for African scientific researchers.MethodsThis study was nested within the context of ‘Developing Excellence in Leadership, Training and Science in Africa’ (DELTAS Africa)—a health-based scientific research capacity strengthening initiative. It adopted an exploratory qualitative cross-sectional study design. In-depth interviews were conducted among 58 (32 Female and 26 Male) trainees/research fellows at various career stages, affiliated to three purposively selected African Research Consortia. The interviews were conducted between May and December 2018 in English. The data were analysed inductively based on emergent themes.ResultsThe study participants were nationals of thirteen SSA countries. More female than male participants had young children. Four themes were identified. They illustrate women’s and men’s characterisation of the normative career pathway and progression requirements which calls for significant ‘time’ commitments (theme 1), and how social power relations of gender within the family and wider society shapes their participation in scientific research activities (theme 2). This culminates in researchers'' differential experiences of navigating between the ‘two different lives’—family and career, and the resultant implications for their career progression and personal well-being (theme 3). Women researchers made different and conscious trade-offs for navigating the ‘two different lives’ by utilising various metaphors such as the ‘biological clock and career clock’, the ‘glass ball and rubber ball’, and the concept of ‘sacrifice’ (theme 4).ConclusionsThis study is the first of its kind to demonstrate how intersectional gender analysis through use of qualitative research methods may provide novel insights into the hidden familial and socio-cultural drivers of gender inequitable scientific research career progression. It offers important policy and practice measures and approaches for fostering career equity for women and men scientists within research capacity strengthening initiatives in SSA.

Africa as headwaiter at the dining table of global value chains: Do institutions matter for her participation?

AbstractGlobal value chains (GVC) have propelled substantial expansion in international trade across the globe over the last two decades. Yet, the institution–GVC nexus in Africa suffers complete neglect in literature. Therefore, we evaluate the impact of different components of political and economic institutions on backward (BWDGVC), forward (FWDGVC), total GVC participation, and GVC position (upstreamness) in Africa. Using system‐GMM with United Nations Conference on Trade and Development GVC database (UNCTAD‐Eora MRIO) for 47 African countries over the period 2000–2018, the key findings show that the effects of the political and economic institutions on GVC participation are diverse. Specifically, property rights, government spending, monetary freedom, and tax burden negatively affect BWDGVC participation while government integrity, investment freedom, and financial freedom stimulate the BWDGVC. Also, all the components of institutional quality that propel BWDGVC, hinder FWDGVC participation and upstreamness, except investment freedom which promotes both BWDGVC and FWDGVC. Nonetheless, property rights, government integrity, monetary freedom, financial freedom, and tax burden engender total GVC participation, whereas government effectiveness, and investment freedom hinder the total GVC participation. Furthermore, good political institutions promote BWGVC and total GVC but reduce upstreamness. Thus, institutions are fundamental drivers of GVC participation in Africa.

Advancing collaborations in health research and clinical trials in Sub-Saharan Africa: development and implementation of a biostatistical collaboration module in the Masters in Biostatistics Program at Stellenbosch University

BackgroundSub-Saharan Africa continues to carry a high burden of communicable diseases such as TB and HIV and non-communicable diseases such as hypertension and other cardiovascular conditions. Although investment in research has led to advances in improvements in outcomes, a lot still remains to be done to build research capacity in health. Like many other regions in the world, Sub-Saharan Africa suffers from a critical shortage of biostatisticians and clinical trial methodologists.MethodsFunded through a Fogarty Global Health Training Program grant, the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences at Stellenbosch University in South Africa established a new Masters Program in Biostatistics which was launched in January 2017. In this paper, we describe the development of a biostatistical and clinical trials collaboration Module, adapted from a similar course offered in the Health Research Methodology program at McMaster University.DiscussionGuided by three core principles (experiential learning; multi-/inter-disciplinary approach; and formal mentorship), the Module aims to advance biostatistical collaboration skills of the trainees by facilitating learning in how to systematically apply fundamental statistical and trial methodological knowledge in practice while strengthening some soft skills which are necessary for effective collaborations with other healthcare researchers to solve health problems. We also share some preliminary findings from the first four cohorts that took the Module in January–November 2018 to 2021. We expect that this Module can provide an example of how to improve biostatistical and clinical trial collaborations and accelerate research capacity building in low-resource settings.Funding sourceFogarty International Center of the National Institutes of Health.

Drivers and Subseasonal Predictability of Heavy Rainfall in Equatorial East Africa and Relationship with Flood Risk

AbstractEquatorial East Africa (EEA) suffers from significant flood risks. These can be mitigated with preemptive action; however, currently available early warnings are limited to a few days’ lead time. Extending warnings using subseasonal climate forecasts could open a window for more extensive preparedness activity. However, before these forecasts can be used, the basis of their skill and relevance for flood risk must be established. Here we demonstrate that subseasonal forecasts are particularly skillful over EEA. Forecasts can skillfully anticipate weekly upper-quintile rainfall within a season, at lead times of 2 weeks and beyond. We demonstrate the link between the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) and extreme rainfall events in the region, and confirm that leading forecast models accurately represent the EEA teleconnection to the MJO. The relevance of weekly rainfall totals for fluvial flood risk in the region is investigated using a long record of streamflow from the Nzoia River in western Kenya. Both heavy rainfall and high antecedent rainfall conditions are identified as key drivers of flood risk, with upper-quintile weekly rainfall shown to skillfully discriminate flood events. We additionally evaluate GloFAS global flood forecasts for the Nzoia basin. Though these are able to anticipate some flooding events with several weeks lead time, analysis suggests action based on these would result in a false alarm more than 50% of the time. Overall, these results build on the scientific evidence base that supports the use of subseasonal forecasts in EEA, and activities to advance their use are discussed.

Making Africa healthy

Sub-Saharan Africa suffers from the worst health status in the world, according to the authors of Making Medicines in Africa. As policymakers turn their focus to healthcare, in part spurred on by the UN Sustainable Development Goals, the authors argue that industrial development in pharmaceuticals and the capabilities it generates can play a crucial role in addressing the healthcare needs of the continent. Through a collection of case studies on industrial policies, Making Medicines in Africa shows the successes and pitfalls along the way.

Synthesis of Some Novel and Potent Anti-Plasmodial Aminoalkyl Chalcone Derivatives

Malaria remains to be a health and an economic burden to many people living in Sub-Sahara and Africa. According to World health Organization (WHO) in 2017, 219 million cases of malaria worldwide were documented. Its increase by 2 million from the year 2016 resulted in 435 thousand deaths every day among 1190 deaths of young children more than cases 5 per day have been reported. Among the different species of plasmodium parasite, Plasmodium falciparum is mainly responsible for causing malaria in Africa whereas Plasmodium vivax is the most prevalent in countries outside Africa. Africa suffers from malaria a lot. Almost half of the world’s population is at risk of contracting malaria and approximately 90% of the death cases of Malaria in the world appear from Africa. In our research group in past, we have established that chalcones with an aminoalkyl moiety on one of the aromatic rings have promising in vitro antimalarial activity. We successively enhanced the bioavailability from 3% to 25% in mice model with the derivatization of the potential leads with the help of substitutions of the function groups at 4- position from -F to -CF3.

Gender equality in Botswana: an unfulfilled agenda

Democracy obligates governments to put all population sub-groups on the same pedestal. Treating population sub-groups equally will ensure gender equality. The world over, there is gender inequality and, therefore, some population sub-groups, particularly women and the girl child, suffer gender injustice. Therefore, they disproportionately suffer from diseases of poverty. To arrest the effects of gender inequality, governments adopt gender instruments. The record is mixed; successes and failures, with a preponderance of the latter. This situation is most acute in Sub-Saharan Africa and Botswana suffers from the same malaise. This paper aims to discuss gender inequality in Botswana. It adopted a case study approach. It concluded that despite the government's avowal to gender equality, there are pockets of gender inequality. The general lesson from this case is that there is no direct correlation between governments' avowal to gender equality and gender equality. Therefore, genuine commitment is important.

Gender equality in Botswana: an unfulfilled agenda

Democracy obligates governments to put all population sub-groups on the same pedestal. Treating population sub-groups equally will ensure gender equality. The world over, there is gender inequality and, therefore, some population sub-groups, particularly women and the girl child, suffer gender injustice. Therefore, they disproportionately suffer from diseases of poverty. To arrest the effects of gender inequality, governments adopt gender instruments. The record is mixed; successes and failures, with a preponderance of the latter. This situation is most acute in Sub-Saharan Africa and Botswana suffers from the same malaise. This paper aims to discuss gender inequality in Botswana. It adopted a case study approach. It concluded that despite the government's avowal to gender equality, there are pockets of gender inequality. The general lesson from this case is that there is no direct correlation between governments' avowal to gender equality and gender equality. Therefore, genuine commitment is important.

Industrial design thinking and innovations propelled by the Royal Academy of Engineering in Sub-Saharan Africa for capacity building

Sub-Saharan Africa suffers from a persistent shortage of engineering skills required to drive industry in this dynamic era of rapid technological changes. This has been exacerbated by the mismatch of skills produced by universities and those required by industry, partly attributed to lack of access to modern equipment and technology by engineering academics to adequately dispatch appropriate skills to future engineers. A recent audit conducted in Zimbabwe revealed a 62% skills deficit, mainly in the engineering and technology sectors. The University of Zimbabwe, in collaboration with six other institutions of higher learning in Southern Africa embarked on and successfully managed the Enriching Engineering Education Program from 2013 to 2015, financially supported by the Royal Academy of Engineering. This project was aimed at enhancing the quality and relevance of engineering graduates and this was accomplished through secondments of engineering academics to industry to improve their skills and access to modern equipment, knowledge sharing workshops and conferences to boost the quality of research as well as continuous professional development training for engineering academics and technicians. This initiative was largely successful, based on student evaluations, buy-in and support from local industries as well as the number of industrial design projects and innovations that were generated, some of which have since been patented and commercialized. These achievements motivated other institutions to join and the initiative has been expanded to the Higher Education Partnerships for Sub-Saharan Africa. This paper outlines the activities and achievements of this initiative and demonstrates how the expanded version will utilize two approaches of design thinking and systems thinking for capacity building and sustainability in engineering education and regional integration.

Spatial trends in the nitrogen budget of the African agro-food system over the past five decades

Low nitrogen (N) fertilization is a dominant cause of malnutrition in Africa, but the spatial and temporal variability of N cycling patterns in Africa remain unclear. This study is the first to perform a detailed analysis of the N cycling patterns of 52 African countries from 1961 to 2016. We calculated the N use efficiency (NUE) in crop production, country-specific N fertilization trends, and the impacts of N fertilization on human protein demand and the environment. Over the past five decades, total N input to African croplands increased from 20 to 35 kg N ha−1 yr−1, while the application of synthetic N fertilizers (SNF) increased from 4.0 to 15 kg N ha−1 yr−1. N contributions from animal manure and biological N fixation remained lower than 10 kg N ha−1 yr−1 and 20 kg N ha−1 yr−1, respectively. The total N crop production increased from 15 to 22 kg N ha−1 yr−1 from 1961 to 2016. Total N surplus in Africa increased from 5 to 13 kg N ha−1 yr−1, while estimated gaseous losses increased from 4.0 to 11 kg N ha−1 yr−1. However, NUE declined from 74% to 63% during the past five decades, and protein consumption increased from 2.99 to 3.78 kg N capita−1 yr−1. These results suggest that Africa suffers from extremely low N input and that N loss is increasing in agricultural land. We recommend the implementation of an effective N management strategy incorporating the use of locally available organic material along with the balanced application of SNF. Such measures will require effective policy development and cooperation between all stakeholders.

Trends of admissions and case fatality rates among medical in-patients at a tertiary hospital in Uganda; A four-year retrospective study.

BackgroundSub-Saharan Africa suffers from a dual burden of infectious and non-communicable diseases. There is limited data on causes and trends of admission and death among patients on the medical wards. Understanding the major drivers of morbidity and mortality would help inform health systems improvements. We determined the causes and trends of admission and mortality among patients admitted to Mulago Hospital, Kampala, Uganda.Methods and resultsThe medical record data base of patients admitted to Mulago Hospital adult medical wards from January 2011 to December 2014 were queried. A detailed history, physical examination and investigations were completed to confirm the diagnosis and identify comorbidities. Any histopathologic diagnoses were made by hematoxylin and eosin tissue staining. We identified the 10 commonest causes of hospitalization, and used Poisson regression to generate annual percentage change to describe the trends in causes of hospitalization. Survival was calculated from the date of admission to the date of death or date of discharge. Cox survival analysis was used to identify factors associate with in-hospital mortality. We used a statistical significance level of p<0.05. A total of 50,624 patients were hospitalized with a median age of 38 (range 13–122) years and 51.7% females. Majority of patients (72%) had an NCD condition as the primary reason for admission. Specific leading causes of morbidity were HIV/AIDS in 30% patients, hypertension in 14%, tuberculosis (TB) in 12%), non-TB pneumonia in11%) and heart failure in 9.3%. There was decline in the proportion of hospitalization due to malaria, TB and pneumonia with an annual percentage change (apc) of -20% to -6% (all p<0.03) with an increase in proportions of admissions due to chronic kidney disease, hypertension, stroke and cancer, with apc 13.4% to 24%(p<0.001). Overall, 8,637(17.1%) died during hospitalization with the highest case fatality rates from non-TB pneumonia (28.8%), TB (27.1%), stroke (26.8%), cancer (26.1%) and HIV/AIDS (25%). HIV-status, age above 50yrs and being male were associated with increased risk of death among patients with infections.ConclusionAdmissions and case fatality rates for both infectious and non-infectious diseases were high, with declining trends in infectious diseases and a rising trend in NCDs. Health care systems in sub-Saharan region need to prepare to deal with dual burden of disease.

A high unemployment and labour market segmentation: A three-segment macroeconomic model

Background: South Africa suffers from an unusually high unemployment rate – officially averaging 25% since 1999Q3. In addition, depending on whether one uses the official or broad definitions of unemployment, since 2008 there are on average between 2 and 3.3 times as many unemployed people as there are people in the informal sector. Hence the question: why do the unemployed not enter the informal sector to create a livelihood?Aim: To fill this gap we propose a macro-economic framework that incorporates both formal (primary) and informal (secondary) sectors, as well as involuntary unemployment resulting from entry barriers to the labour market. We believe such a model provides a more suitable basis for macroeconomic policy analysis.Setting: Standard macroeconomic theories at best provide a partial explanation for the South African unemployment problem, focusing mostly on the formal sector.Methods: The article uses a theoretical analysis.Results: The article presents a macro-economic framework that incorporates both formal (primary) and informal (secondary) sectors, as well as involuntary unemployment resulting from entry barriers to the labour market.Conclusion: If the assumptions on which the model draws hold in the South African reality, then a solution to the unem-ployment problem involve policies addressing product and labour market structures and behaviour in the primary sector, as well as policies addressing the numerous barriers to entry, such as borrowing constraints, that poten-tial entrants into the secondary sector face.

Factors Affecting Peace and Development of African Countries: The Case of Ethiopia

This Research Paper would like to analyze and examine the Factors Affecting Development of the African Countries: The Case of Ethiopia. Africa is poten-tially rich because Africa has inexhaustible or abundant quantity reserves of important natural (mineral) and agricultural as well as human resources. Moreover, $148 billion U.S. dollars are drained every year out of the African continent through various corrupt activities. But on the contrary, Africa suffers from food shortage. Africa’s annual food import bill of $35 billion is estimated to rise to $110 billion by 2025. Therefore, the question is: why the African countries like Nigeria or Ethiopia are so poor that they are dependent on for-eign food aid although they are so rich? For instance, Nigeria is Africa’s largest economy and Ethiopia alone could feed easily the whole continent of Africa. However, in the reality also Nigeria is dependent on foreign food aid because Nigeria’s resource wealth has not yet translated into gains for its people. Therefore, what is behind of this paradox? There are Factors which affect De-velopment of the African countries: The Case of Ethiopia. These are for ex-ample: Good Governance, Law & Order, Responsibility, Accountability, Re-sponsiveness, Transparency, Awareness, Consciousness, Vision/Aim/ Objec-tive, Concern, Fairness, etc. Consequently, lack of implementation of the above mentioned Factors of Development could cause poverty in a country like Ethiopia. Therefore, Change One’s Mind or Mentality, i.e. the way of thinking about things is the decisive key Factor of Development of a country like Ethiopia. In order to find out the reasons behind of the paradox situation of the African countries like Ethiopia and/or Nigeria, the author of this Re-search Paper has applied the following methodologies: 1) Various sources of secondary data like for example historical and present publications were col-lected and reviewed. 2) Empirical and observation studies were analyzed and reviewed.

Socio-Economic Factors of Small Hydropower and Biogas Plants and their Implications for Rural Energy Poverty Alleviation in Kirinyaga, Kenya

Energy is essential for sustainable development and for improving the socio-economic welfare of a community. Sub-Saharan Africa suffers from severe rural energy poverty and minimal access to modern energy services. Adoption of renewable energy technologies is often viewed as a way to alleviate rural energy poverty, but uptake is slow. Socio-economic factors, mainly household income, electricity access, fuels used for cooking, and land tenure, influence adoption of renewable energy technologies. This paper assesses the contribution of small hydropower and biogas technologies in alleviating rural energy poverty in Kirinyaga County, Kenya, where the majority of the population relies on traditional sources of energy. A case study research design was used, with a sample size of 178. Data was collected using a questionnaire survey, the review of project documents, and interviews. Five indicators were used to assess energy poverty. The results indicate medium to low energy poverty and energy stacking; with reliance on traditional sources of energy. Socio-economic factors influence adoption of SHP and biogas. Therefore, adoption of renewable energy technologies does not alleviate rural energy poverty because SHP and biogas are used to supplement rather than replace the use of traditional fuels.