Aflatoxins In Foodstuffs Research Articles

Recent Advances in Biodecontamination of Aflatoxins in Foodstuffs: Using Biomass (2011-2021)

Background: Aflatoxin is one of the most hazardous toxins produced by Aspergillus spp. and contaminates animal feed and therefore human food. Aflatoxin exposure causes several health problems including liver, kidney, and intestine disorders for human beings. Therefore, an efficient decontamination method for food stuff seems essential. Objective: The aim of this mini-review was to go over the recent advances in the decontamination of aflatoxins in foodstuffs and explain the bio-removal methods based on microorganisms during the last decade. Methods: Literature research was performed using the keywords “aflatoxin”, “bio removal”, “decontamination”, “food”, and “biomass” individually or all together, in Scopus, Web of Science, and Pubmed in the last decade. Results: LABs and yeasts are the most useful and successful microorganisms in this field. These methods are very efficient, specific, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective, also they do not affect the nutritional value of the foodstuffs, unlike the physical or chemical techniques. The bio-removal methods contain aflatoxin adsorption and degradation. Conclusion: Although more studies and researches are required to evaluate the different types of toxin removal using various microorganisms and their practical aspects and the highest efficiency should be determined.

Development of PCR, LAMP and qPCR Assays for the Detection of Aflatoxigenic Strains of Aspergillusflavus and A. parasiticus in Hazelnut.

Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus are two species able to produce aflatoxins in foodstuffs, and in particular in hazelnuts, at harvest and during postharvest phase. As not all the strains of these species are aflatoxin producers, it is necessary to develop techniques that can detect aflatoxigenic from not aflatoxigenic strains. Two assays, a LAMP (loop-mediated isothermal amplification) and a real time PCR with TaqMan® probe were designed and validated in terms of specificity, sensitivity, reproducibility, and repeatability. The capability of the strains to produce aflatoxins was measured in vitro and both assays showed to be specific for the aflatoxigenic strains of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. The limit of detection of the LAMP assay was 100–999 picograms of DNA, while the qPCR detected 160 femtograms of DNA in hazelnuts. Both techniques were validated using artificially inoculated hazelnuts and naturally infected hazelnuts. The qPCR was able to detect as few as eight cells of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus in naturally infected hazelnut. The combination of the LAMP assay, which can be performed in less than an hour, as screening method, with the high sensitivity of the qPCR, as confirmation assay, is able to detect aflatoxigenic strains already in field, helping to preserve the food safety of hazelnuts.

Aflatoxins in foodstuffs: Occurrence and risk assessment in Turkey

This study aims to determine dietary exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and the sum of aflatoxins (AFT) for the Turkish population and assess the risks to human health related to aflatoxins. A total of 1473 results on five main food categories commercialised in Turkey in 2002–2019 were used in the risk assessment. In the adult population, the mean middle bound (MB) exposure levels were 0.433 ng kg−1 b.w. per day for AFB1 and 0.511 ng kg−1 b.w. per day for AFT. The 95th percentile dietary exposure of AFB1 and AFT was estimated at 1.19 and 1.29 ng kg−1 b.w. per day, respectively. Pistachios (44.4 %) made the highest contribution to mean AFB1 exposure in Turkish adults, followed by maize/maize flour (16.2 %), groundnuts (13.8 %), chilli (10.1 %), walnuts (4.9 %), hazelnuts (4.0 %), chocolate (3.9 %) and others (2.7 %). The margin of exposure (MOE) estimates for mean and 95th percentile exposures to AFB1 are considerably lower than 10 000, which raises a potential health concern for Turkish adults.

Residual Analysis of Aflatoxins in Spice by HPLC Coupled with Solid-Phase Dispersive Extraction and Solid-Phase Fluorescence Derivatization Method.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are carcinogenic mycotoxins. A simple, quick, and accurate method for the micro-analysis of AFs in foodstuffs, especially spices, is needed. A sophisticated pretreatment method that combines solid-phase dispersive extraction (SPDE) and solid-phase fluorescence derivatization using immunoaffinity (IA) gel as the solid phase was developed to analyze AFs in spices simply, quickly, and sensitively by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. White and black pepper samples were extracted with a mixed solution of methanol/water (4:1) and then diluted with 7% aqueous solution of Triton-X. The solution was subjected to cleanup by SPDE using IA gel. Trifluoroacetic acid was added to the IA gel for on-site solid-phase fluorescence derivatization. Chromatograms containing well-separated peaks and few interference peaks from contaminants were obtained. The method detection limit of AFs in white and black pepper was 0.15-0.29 ng/g. Repeatability and intermediate precision were <10% and <15%, respectively, and accuracy was 61.7-87.8%. In addition, inter-laboratory precision was <29% and mean recovery was 61.5-76.7%. A favorable z-score of |Z| ≦ 1 was obtained in seven laboratories, although one laboratory gave 2 < |Z| < 3. The validity, reliability, practicality, and robustness of the developed method were verified. By using SPDE and solid-phase fluorescence derivatization in combination for AF analysis, fluorescence derivatization during cleanup was realized, leading to simplification of the pretreatment operation.

Aflatoxins as Food Contaminants

Mycotoxins are nowadays one of the most known and most frequent chemical food contaminants. Among the listed mycotoxins, aflatoxins are the most important group of mycotoxins in terms of impact on human and animal health. Of the known mycotoxins, aflatoxin B1 is considered the most toxic. The main sources of aflatoxins are cereals, oilseeds, nuts, dried fruit, and spices. The most commonly used screening method for the detection of mycotoxins is the immunoenzyme (ELISA) method. The purpose of this paper is to show the types of foodstuffs and the results of sample analyses of aflatoxin B1 in these foodstuffs carried out at the Institute of Public Health of the Republic of Srpska - Regional Center Doboj in the period from 2011 to 2017, and to propose measures for improvement of supervision in this area, i.e. to recommend certain measures in order to prevent the occurrence of aflatoxins in foodstuffs.

Detection the Aflatoxins in FoodStuffs (Milk, Egg, Banana and Onion) from Three Locations (Khartoum, Omdurman and Bahri) in Khartoum State, Sudan

Detection the Aflatoxins in FoodStuffs (Milk, Egg, Banana and Onion) from Three Locations (Khartoum, Omdurman and Bahri) in Khartoum State, Sudan

Determination of mold contamination and aflatoxin levels of the meat products/ingredients collected from Turkey market

AbstractThis study aimed to highlight general safety conditions of meat products (n = 24, fresh meat, Turkish sucuk, sausage, and pastirma) and ingredients (n = 20, red paprika, black pepper, coriander, spice mix and fenugreek powder) sold in Turkey regarding mold and aflatoxin contamination. Total 55 mold species belonging to Aspergillus and Penicillium sp. were isolated while A. flavus and A. niger were the most prevalent ones. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was detected in 50% (n = 12) and 65% (n = 13) of the meat products and ingredients while 25% and 43% of sucuk and pastirma samples had mold counts exceeding the limits of Turkish Food Codex, respectively. However, one red paprika sample had AFB1 and total aflatoxin levels over the limitations of Turkish Food Codex and European Commission. It was concluded that Turkish meat products/ingredients were generally safe for consumption.Practical applicationsThere is an increasing attention on mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs in terms of consumer health as well as in international trade. Although especially spices are under the risk of mold growth and formation of mycotoxins, animal products such as beef and milk are also frequently exposed to mycotoxin contamination. In the meanwhile, national and international regulatory agents have established limits for the presence of aflatoxins in foodstuffs. Therefore, this study provides beneficial information about general safety conditions of several meat products and ingredients sold in Turkey market.

High-sensitivity direct analysis of aflatoxins in peanuts and cereal matrices by ultra-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection involving a large volume flow cell

ABSTRACTThis paper reports a sensitive and cost effective method of analysis for aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2. The sample preparation method was primarily optimised in peanuts, followed by its validation in a range of peanut-processed products and cereal (rice, corn, millets) matrices. Peanut slurry [12.5 g peanut + 12.5 mL water] was extracted with methanol: water (8:2, 100 mL), cleaned through an immunoaffinity column and thereafter measured directly by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence (UPLC-FLD) detection, within a chromatographic runtime of 5 minutes. The use of a large volume flow cell in the FLD nullified the requirement of any post-column derivatisation and provided the lowest ever reported limits of quantification of 0.025 for B1 and G1 and 0.01 μg/kg for B2 and G2. The single laboratory validation of the method provided acceptable selectivity, linearity, recovery and precision for reliable quantifications in all the test matrices as well as demonstrated compliance with the EC 401/2006 guidelines for analytical quality control of aflatoxins in foodstuffs.

Design of Multifunctional Nanostructure for Ultrafast Extraction and Purification of Aflatoxins in Foodstuffs.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are a class of carcinogens, associated with liver cancers, that exist in foodstuffs. There are extremely low maximum limits of AFs in foodstuffs (0.025-20 μg·kg-1). Quick and sensitive detection of such low concentration of AFs in foodstuffs is dominated by the efficiency and selectivity of the AF enrichment process, which is extremely challenging although substantial efforts have been made in recent decades. Here we design and synthesize a multilayer nanoarchitecture composed of a broad-spectrum aflatoxin monoclonal antibody shell, chitosan middle layer, and magnetic bead core (denoted AF-mAb/CTS/Fe3O4). The efficiency of AF-mAb/CTS/Fe3O4 in extracting AFs has been found to be more than 60 times higher than both conventional immunoaffinity chromatography and solid-phase extraction. Furthermore, the nanocomposite displays excellent selectivity and good reusability as well as outstanding efficiency. When coupled to ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry, this new nanoarchitecture enables us to probe six AFs at concentrations as low as 0.003 μg·kg-1 in foodstuffs with free matrix effects, which is nearly 10 times smaller than the regulated maximum tolerated does. It is believed that the new nanoarchitecture will provide an efficient and fast pathway to detect AFs in foodstuffs to protect human being from some critical liver cancers.

Low-cost humic acid-bonded silica as an effective solid-phase extraction sorbent for convenient determination of aflatoxins in edible oils

Aflatoxins (AFs) are highly toxic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, and teratogenic secondary metabolites produced by the toxigenic fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. AFs tend to contaminate a wide range of foods which is a serious and recurring food safety problem worldwide. Currently, immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC) has become the most conventional sample clean-up method for determining AFs in foodstuffs. However, IAC method is limited in the large-scale food analysis because it requires the use of expensive disposable cartridges and the IA procedure is time-consuming. Herein, to achieve the cost-effective determination of AFs in edible oils, we developed a promising solid-phase extraction (SPE) method based on commercially available humic acid-bonded silica (HAS) sorbent, followed by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) analysis. In HAS-SPE, AFs can be captured by the HAS sorbent with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions, whereas the oil matrix was captured only with the hydrophobic interactions. The oil matrix can be sufficiently washed off with isopropanol, while the AFs were still retained on the SPE packing, thus achieving selective extraction of AFs and clean-up of oil matrices. Under the optimal conditions of HAS-SPE, satisfactory recoveries ranging from 82% to 106% for four AFs (B1, B2, G1, and G2) were achieved in various oil matrices, containing blended oil, tea oil, rapeseed oil, peanut oil, sunflower seed oil, corn oil, blended olive oil, rice oil, soybean oil, and sesame oil. Only minor matrix effects ranging from 99% to 105% for four AFs were observed. Moreover, the LODs of AFs between 0.012 and 0.035 μg/kg completely meet the regulatory levels fixed by the EU, China or other countries. The methodology was further validated for assaying the naturally contaminated peanut oils, and consistent results between the HAS-SPE and the referenced IAC were obtained. In addition, HAS-SPE can directly treat diluted oil sample without liquid-liquid extraction and is automatable, thus making it simple and convenient for the large-scale determination of AFs in edible oils. Using this method, we successfully detected four AFs in the naturally contaminated peanut oils, which is, to the best of our knowledge, the first report about the determination of AFs in edible oils using HA-based SPE.

Occurrence of Aflatoxin in Some Food Commodities Commonly Consumed in Nigeria

Aflatoxicosis is a public health problem in Nigeria like other tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Control of aflatoxin contamination requires thorough risk assessment, monitoring, quality control and empirical data. This study assayed total aflatoxin levels, identified and quantified four aflatoxin types in five food commodities commonly consumed in the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria. The food materials: &lt;em&gt;Zea mays, Colocynthis citrullus, Capsicum frutescens, Irvingia gabonensis&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Arachis hypogea&lt;/em&gt; were obtained from Watt market in Calabar urban. ELISA method was used for total aflatoxin, HPLC for aflatoxin types, AOAC for moisture. All (100%) the samples were contaminated with aflatoxin. Contamination was highest in&lt;em&gt; Irvingia gabonensis&lt;/em&gt; (63.40 ± 1.79 µg/kg) and least in &lt;em&gt;Zea mays&lt;/em&gt; (3.20 ± 0.12 µg/kg) (p &amp;lt; 0.05). Except for &lt;em&gt;Irvingia gabonensis&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Colocynthis citrullus&lt;/em&gt;, total aflatoxin was within safe intake level of the Nigerian regulatory authority (National Agency for Food and Drug Adminstration and Control {NAFDAC}). All four aflatoxin types occurred in &lt;em&gt;Irvingia gabonensis&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Capsicum frutescens&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Colocynthis citrullus&lt;/em&gt;; none was detected in &lt;em&gt;Arachis hypogea&lt;/em&gt;. AFB&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; contamination was highest in&lt;em&gt; Irvingia gabonensis&lt;/em&gt; (11.71±0.10 µg/kg) followed by &lt;em&gt;Capsicum frutescens&lt;/em&gt; (1.21 ± 0.01 µg/kg); AFB&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ranged from 0.00 ± 0.00-2.43 ± 0.05 µg/kg, AFG&lt;sub&gt;1 &lt;/sub&gt;0.00 ± 0.00-3.73 ± 0.04 µg/kg, and AFG&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; 0.00 ± 0.00-0.54 ± 0.01 µg/kg (p &amp;lt; 0.05). Only&lt;em&gt; Irvingia gabonensis&lt;/em&gt; exceeded the limit of AFB&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; specified by NAFDAC for human foods. Moisture content varied widely (3.23 ± 0.03%-10.37 ± 0.19%).&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;The trend in the occurrence of aflatoxins in the food samples was directly proportional (r = 0.91) to their moisture contents. Food&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;commodities sold in Calabar carry potential health hazard. Improved handling through food processing, preservation and storage can minimize aflatoxins in foodstuffs and ensure sustainable quality of food supply.

Microfluidic chip-based nano-liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for quantification of aflatoxins in peanut products

Aflatoxins (AFs), a group of mycotoxins, are generally produced by fungi Aspergillus species. The naturally occurring AFs including AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 have been clarified as group 1 human carcinogen by International Agency for Research on Cancer. Developing a sensitive analytical method has become an important issue to accurately quantify trace amount of AFs in foodstuffs. In this study, we employed a microfluidic chip-based nano LC (chip-nanoLC) coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (QqQ-MS) system for the quantitative determination of AFs in peanuts and related products. Gradient elution and multiple reaction monitoring were utilized for chromatographic separation and MS measurements. Solvent extraction followed by immunoaffinity solid-phase extraction was employed to isolate analytes and reduce matrix effect from sample prior to chip-nanoLC/QqQ-MS analysis. Good recoveries were found to be in the range of 90.8%−100.4%. The linear range was 0.048−16ngg−1 for AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2 and AFM1. Limits of detection were estimated as 0.004−0.008ngg−1. Good intra-day/inter-day precision (2.3%−9.5%/2.3%−6.6%) and accuracy (96.1%−105.7%/95.5%−104.9%) were obtained. The applicability of this newly developed chip-nanoLC/QqQ-MS method was demonstrated by determining the AFs in various peanut products purchased from local markets.

Determination of Aflatoxin Levels in Some Dairy Food Products and Dry Nuts Consumed in Saudi Arabia

Three hundred and ninety-three samples of dairy products (124 samples of white cheese, 61 samples of cream cheese, 76 samples of Kashar cheese, and 132 samples of butter), 91 samples of cashew nut and 97 macademia nut marketed in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia during September 2010-September 2011, were analyzed for aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), total aflatoxin and AFB1 by microtitre plate enzyme linked immunosorband assay (ELISA) The incidence of AFM1 contamination in dairy products analyzed was 82%. Total aflatoxin contamination was determined in 84 (92.3%) of 91 cashew nut and in 88 (90.7%) of 97 macademia nut whereas total aflatoxin contamination was not detected in 3 (3.2%) of 91 cashew nut samples and in 12 of 97 macademia nut samples. AFB1 was found in 84 (92.3%) of 91 cashew nut and in 83 (85.5%) of 97 samples of macademia nut samples. AFM1 levels in 3 (2.4%) white cheese, 4 (3.0%) of butter, 2 (3.2%) in cream cheese and 5 (6.5%) of Kashar cheese samples were found higher than the maximum acceptable levels as set by European Union.Continuous surveillance program may be warranted to monitor regularly the occurrence of aflatoxins in foodstuffs.

Molecular strategy for identification inAspergillus sectionFlavi

Aspergillus flavus is one of the most common contaminants that produces aflatoxins in foodstuffs. It is also a human allergen and a pathogen of animals and plants. Aspergillus flavus is included in the Aspergillus section Flavi that comprises 11 closely related species producing different profiles of secondary metabolites. A six-step strategy has been developed that allows identification of nine of the 11 species. First, three real-time PCR reactions allowed us to discriminate four groups within the section: (1) A. flavus/Aspergillus oryzae/Aspergillus minisclerotigenes/Aspergillus parvisclerotigenus; (2) Aspergillus parasiticus/Aspergillus sojae/Aspergillus arachidicola; (3) Aspergillus tamarii/Aspergillus bombycis/Aspergillus pseudotamarii; and (4) Aspergillus nomius. Secondly, random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) amplifications or SmaI digestion allowed us to differentiate (1) A. flavus, A. oryzae and A. minisclerotigenes; (2) A. parasiticus, A. sojae and A. arachidicola; (3) A. tamarii, A. bombycis and A. pseudotamarii. Among the 11 species, only A. parvisclerotigenus cannot be differentiated from A. flavus. Using the results of real-time PCR, RAPD and SmaI digestion, a decision-making tree was drawn up to identify nine of the 11 species of section Flavi. In contrast to conventional morphological methods, which are often time-consuming, the molecular strategy proposed here is based mainly on real-time PCR, which is rapid and requires minimal handling.

Aflatoxinas em produtos à base de milho comercializados no Brasil e riscos para a saúde humana

Aflatoxins are secondary toxic mold metabolites produced by Aspergillus. The techniques of immunoassay (ELISA) and thin layer chromatography (TLC) were used for the determination of total aflatoxins in foodstuffs produced with maize and commercialized in Brazil, between April 2003 and March 2004. One hundred and twenty-three samples of foodstuffs produced with maize were analized. Seven of which were positive in TLC and 16 in ELISA. The average of total aflatoxin found in samples using TLC was 0.62 µg/kg (µg.kg-1), while using ELISA was 0.78 µg/kg (µg.kg-1). The results presented significant differences between ELISA and TLC (T=12, p=0.0469). The data demonstrate low occurence of aflatoxins in the maize products analysed. Despite this, Average Probable Daily Intake (APDI) of AFB1 was above Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI), indicating a risk of liver carcinogenicity for Brazilian population due to the consumption of maize products. The ELISA method revealed to be simple, fast, and uses less organic solvent, however, it presented positive and negative presumptive results, what makes necessary the confirmation of the mycotoxins identity by TLC.

Development of a liquid chromatography/time‐of‐flight mass spectrometric method for the simultaneous determination of trichothecenes, zearalenone and aflatoxins in foodstuffs

A liquid chromatography/atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry (LC/APCI-MS) method based on time-of-flight MS (TOFMS) with a real-time reference mass correction technique was developed for the simultaneous determination of Fusarium mycotoxins (nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, fusarenon X, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, HT-2 toxin, T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, zearalenone) and Aspergillus mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, aflatoxin G2) in corn, wheat, cornflakes and biscuits. Samples were cleaned up with a MultiSep #226 column. Detection of the mycotoxins was carried out in exact mass chromatograms with a mass window of 0.03 Th. Calibration curves were linear from 2 to 200 ng x mL(-1) for trichothecenes and zearalenone, and 0.2 to 20 ng x mL(-1) for aflatoxins, by 20 microL injection. The limits of detection ranged from 0.1 to 6.1 ng x g(-1) in foodstuffs analyzed in this study. The LC/TOFMS method was found to be suitable for the screening of multiple mycotoxins in foodstuffs rapidly and with high sensitivity, and its performance was demonstrated for the confirmation for target mycotoxins.

Determination of aflatoxins in foodstuffs employing fluorometric method

Results from the examination of total aflatoxins in foodstuffs are presented Determination of the aflatoxins was done employing rapid and reliable method based on immunnosorbent columns clean-up and measurement of the aflatoxins by fluorometer (Vicam, USA). Quantification and detection limits of the method were 1.0 and 0.1 ppb respectively. This method is especially suitable when laboratories are dealing with big number of samples. 20% of the samples were found to content total aflatoxins over MRL (5 g/kg). The positive samples were further analysed with TLC as a confirmatory method, whereby over 95% of positive samples where confirmed by TLC technique. Application of this rapid aflatoxin method significantly simplifies their analysis, especially when laboratories are dealing with big number of samples.

Risk assessment for aflatoxins in foodstuffs

There had been a growing body of circumstantial evidence that aflatoxin B1 is carcinogenic, as well as acutely toxic, to humans, but in 1987 that International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) accepted that aflatoxin should be classified as a Group 1 carcinogen. Regulatory levels set by the governments of many countries are based on the premise that aflatoxin is indeed carcinogenic and the European Community agreed on 16 July 1998 a limit of 2μgkg−1 for aflatoxin B1 in a range of foods for human consumption. The need for a risk assessment arises from the widespread occurrence of the aflatoxins in commodities resulting from contamination in storage and in the field by the fungi which produce it—Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nomius. Risk assessment requires both a knowledge of exposure and a detailed knowledge of the toxicology of the aflatoxins. The toxicology of aflatoxin B1 involves a complex sequence of metabolic alterations of the molecule by enzymes in the animal tissues (usually the liver). This complexity is reflected in the very diverse range of responses by different animal species and it is likely that there will also be differences in response amongst different races of humans, and indeed even amongst different individuals of the same race.

Aflatoxins in foodstuffs

Aflatoxins in foodstuffs

Current situation on regulations for mycotoxins. Overview of tolerances and status of standard methods of sampling and analysis.

A worldwide enquiry was undertaken in 1986-1987 to obtain up-to-date information about mycotoxin legislation in as many countries of the world as possible. Together with some additional data collected in 1981, information is now available about planned, proposed, existing or absence of legislation in 66 countries. Details about tolerances, legal bases, responsible authorities, prescribed methods of sampling and analysis and disposition of commodities containing inadmissible amounts of mycotoxins, are given. The information concerns aflatoxins in foodstuffs, aflatoxin M1 in dairy products, aflatoxins in animal feedstuffs, and other mycotoxins in food- and feedstuffs. In comparison with the situation in 1981, limits and regulations for mycotoxins have been expanded in 1987 with more countries having legislation (proposed or passed) on the subject, more products, and more mycotoxins covered by this legislation. The differences between tolerances in the various countries are sometimes quite large, which makes harmonization of mycotoxin regulations highly desirable.