Aflatoxins G1 Research Articles

Mycobiota contaminating some market cake samples with reference to their toxin and enzyme

Fungi can spoil the majority of baked products. Spoilage of cake during storage is commonly associated with fungi. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the quality of different types of cakes sold in the market. The most predominant fungal genera in the tested cake samples (14 samples) were Aspergillus spp., and Penicillium spp. On Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA), the medium fungal total count was 43.3 colonies /g. Aspergillus was the most dominant genus and was isolated from six samples of cake. Aspergillus was represented by 3 species namely, A. flavus, A. niger, and A. nidulans, represented by 13.32, 19.99, and 3.33 colonies /g respectively. On Malt Extract Agar (MEA) Medium, the fungal total count was 123.24 colonies / g. Aspergillus was the most dominant isolated genus from 11 samples of cake and was represented by 5 species, namely, A. flavus, A. niger, A. ochraceous, A. terreus, and A. versicolor (26. 65, 63.29, 3.33, 6.66, and 3.33 colonies / g , respectively). Twenty-four isolates (88.88 %) of the total tested twenty-seven filamentous fungi showed positive results for amylase production. Ten isolates (37.03%) of the total tested filamentous fungi showed positive results for lipase production, and finally eleven isolates (40.74 %) of the total fungal isolates showed positive results for protease production. Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, and ochratoxin A were not detected in fourteen collected samples of cake. In this study, clove oil was the best choice overpeppermint oil and olive oil for preventing mold development when natural agents were compared. It might be due to the presence of a varietyof bioactive chemical compounds in clove oil, whose major bioactive component is eugenol, which acts as an antifungal reagent. Therefore, freshly baked cake should be consumed within afew days to avoid individuals experiencing foodborne illnesses.

Prenatal ochratoxin A exposure, birth outcomes and infant growth in rural Burkina Faso: A human biomonitoring sub-study from the MISAME-III trial

Mycotoxin exposure during pregnancy has been associated with adverse birth outcomes and poor infant growth in low- and middle-income countries. We assessed multiple biomarkers and metabolites of exposure to mycotoxins during pregnancy and their associations with birth outcomes and infant growth in 305 pregnant participants, between 30 and 34 completed weeks of gestation, in rural Burkina Faso. In this study, whole blood microsamples were analyzed for mycotoxin concentrations using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Unadjusted and adjusted associations between mycotoxin exposure, and birth outcomes and infant growth at 6 months were estimated using linear regression models for continuous outcomes and linear probability models with robust variance estimation for binary outcomes. Infant growth trajectories from birth to 6 months were compared by exposure status using mixed-effects models with random intercept for the individual infant and random slope for the infant's age. Ochratoxin A (OTA) exposure was detected in 50.8 % of the study participants, with aflatoxin G1, aflatoxin M1, cyclopiazonic acid, deoxynivalenol and T-2-toxin being detected in the range of 0.33 % and 2.31 % of the population. We found no statistically significant (p ≥ 0.05) associations between OTA exposure, and birth outcomes and infant growth. Despite this, the findings indicate a significant presence of ochratoxin A among pregnant participants. Public health policies and nutrition-sensitive interventions must ensure that OTA exposure is reduced in Burkina Faso.

Serum-Derived Bovine Immunoglobulin/Protein Isolate Bind Aflatoxins B2 and G1

Aflatoxins are highly toxic biproducts of mold growth which commonly contaminate agricultural commodities, including food and feed. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates approximately half of people worldwide are chronically exposed to aflatoxins through their regular food consumption. The gut serves as both the initial target of toxicity and the location of absorption, leading to systemic exposure. Serum-derived bovine immunoglobulin/protein isolate (SBI) is a purified protein powder enriched in immunoglobulins IgG (55%), IgM (5%), and IgA (1%) used to help manage gut enteropathy. SBI binds a variety of pro-inflammatory antigens and decreases inflammatory markers in the gut by neutralizing or preventing translocation of antigen across the intestinal barrier. The objective of this study is to determine if the immunoglobulins in SBI bind to aflatoxins. Due to the protective effects of SBI, we hypothesize SBI and a highly purified immunoglobulin fraction (>95%), b ovine gamma globulin (BGG), can bind to aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) and aflatoxin G1 (AFG1). Fluorescence spectroscopy was used to quantify the binding of aflatoxins to SBI. Previous work has shown the binding of aflatoxins to tryptophan containing proteins, such as bovine serum albumin, reduces the fluorescence of the protein’s tryptophan residue. The same principle works for SBI, upon excitation at 280 nm, the emission spectra of SBI exhibits a peak at 370 nm which is decreased upon aflatoxin binding. Either SBI (5 μM) or BGG (5 μM) was titrated with an increasing concentration of either AFB2 or AFG1 (0-40 μM). The protein solution was excited at 280 nm and the emission spectra was recorded at 350-450 nm with quenching quantified at 370 nm. The fluorescence from SBI or BGG was reduced in a concentration-dependent manner as the concentration of AFB2 or AFG1 increased. The quenching constant (Ksv) was calculated using the Stern-Volmer equation, while a derivative from the equation was used to calculate the binding constant (Kb). All protein-aflatoxin pairs tested showed binding with Ksv values ranging from 0.9–1.2 x 104 M−1 (R2=0.99) and Kb values ranging from 2.5 x 104 to 4.21 x 105, with SBI-AFB2 exhibiting the tightest binding. Further, the Gibbs free energy for each pair was -6.0 to -7.7 kcal/mol, indicating favorable binding. The quenching of both protein solutions indicates structural and conformational changes in the native structures of both SBI and BGG, likely caused by the interaction of the immunoglobulins with the aflatoxin. The quenching of BGG suggests immunoglobulins in SBI play a significant role for the observed phenomenon, though other serum proteins within SBI could contribute to the quenched fluorescence. Future work will examine if the binding of the aflatoxins by SBI can prevent or mitigate aflatoxin toxicity in the gut. Proliant Health and Biologicals. This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2024 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

ANALYSIS OF AFLATOXIN B1, B2, G1, G2 LEVELS IN FRIED ONIONS PRODUCED IN PALU USING HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC) METHOD

Aflatoxin, produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus paraciticus, commonly contaminates agricultural and processed products. This study aims to analyze aflatoxin levels in fried onions produced in Palu through high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using an immunoaffinity column an a fluorescent detector at an excitation wavelength of 360 nm and an emission wavelength of 440 nm. The standard working chromatogram of aflatoxin gave a peak response at retention times of 28.618 minutes for aflatoxin B1, 21.985 minutes for aflatoxin B2, 17.625 minutes for aflatoxinn G1, and 13.719 minutes for aflatoxin G2. The limit of detection (LOD) values for each standard were : aflatoxin B1 : 0.2607 ng/ml; aflatoxin B2 : 0.0600 ng/ml; aflatoxin G1 : 0.1986 ng/ml; and aflatoxin G2 : 0.0310 ng/ml. The chromatogram results of the 10 fried onion samples analyzed showed no peak response with the same retention time as the standard aflatoxin retention time, so that the 10 samples can be concluded as meet requirements.

Aflatoxins in cattle concentrate feed and potential carry-over of aflatoxin B1 into milk in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Aflatoxin contamination of animal feed threatens livestock production and can harm human health when aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is carried over as aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) into milk for human consumption; therefore, aflatoxins in cattle concentrate feeds sold in Dar es salaam, Tanzania were determined in this study. Aflatoxins in cattle concentrate feeds were determined using Enzyme-linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA) and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a Fluorescent Detector (HPLC-FLD) and potential carry-over was determined using carry-over equations. Aflatoxins were found in 78% of the concentrate feed samples in the range LOD to 161.32 µg/kg. The mean total aflatoxins (TAFs) was 25.89 ± 3.3 µg/kg, higher than WHO/US-FDA limit of 20 µg/kg in feed although the difference was insignificant (P = 0.81). AFB1 mean was 18.87 ± 2.45 µg/kg and significantly exceeded the WHO/US-FDA limit of 5 µg/kg of AFB1 in dairy feed (P = 3.05 × 10–10). Aflatoxins B2, G1 and G2, were also detected ranging from ND – 75.06 µg/kg. The calculated AFM1 in milk was in the range 0.001 – 0.363 µg/L in low milkers, 0.002–0.666 µg/L in medium milkers and 0.002–0.806 µg/L in high milkers. Carry-over was estimated to range from 1.2 to 1.7%. This study revealed that concentrate feed sold in Dar es salaam was highly contaminated with aflatoxins; noteworthy aflatoxin B1 exceeded the WHO/US-FDA limit implying potential carry-over into milk which could expose milk consumers to aflatoxins, hence livestock feed chain participants need to be sensitized.

Aflatoxins in maize, milk and dairy products from Serbia.

This study presents data on the occurrence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 in maize and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk and dairy products from Serbia in 2022. A total of 100 maize samples were analysed using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, while 107 cow and goat milk, besides dairy products were tested with an ELISA method. Aflatoxins contaminated 78% of the maize samples, with aflatoxin B1 as the most prevalent aflatoxin, also at the highest determined level. All milk samples tested positive for AFM1, while contamination in dairy products ranged from 14% to 100%. The hot and dry weather during the 2022 maize growing season, characterised by moderate to extreme drought conditions, significantly increased maize contamination with aflatoxins, impacting subsequent milk and dairy products contamination. The findings of this study confirm the continuous trend and persistent challenge in Serbia concerning the prevalence of aflatoxins in maize and milk, closely linked to climate change.

UV light treatment (278 nm) for detoxification of aflatoxins and application in edible and medicinal herb coix seed

SummaryAflatoxins (AFs) are highly toxic and cancer‐causing compounds, which could be commonly found in agricultural products and feeds. However, different tactics for detoxification have significant limitations due to their unsuitability for use. In this study, an LED UV curing system (wavelength: 278 nm, irradiation energy: 100%, irradiation time: 10 min) could effectively reduce pure aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), pure aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) and pure aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) (detoxification rates are more than 80%). In addition, in vitro biocompatibility tests indicate that the hypertoxicity of the obtained AFs‐degraded solutions was significantly reduced, which might be because the unsaturated ketone structure in AFB1, AFB2 and AFG1 was broken. Moreover, in processed coix seed and dried boat‐fruited Sterculia seed samples, the amount of AF was greatly reduced, and the rate of degradation was more than 85% with irradiation for 30 min. These data adequately implied that the current work might offer a practical way to detoxify AFs in various medicinal plants and foods.

Meat Starter Culture Reduces Aspergillus parasiticus Production of Aflatoxins on Meat-Based and Salami Model Media.

There is great concern about the risk posed by the consumption of food contaminated with aflatoxins (AF), produced mostly by Aspergillus strains, that can also be found in dry-fermented meat products (DFMPs). The aim of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effect of meat starter culture (SC), frequently used for fermentation in the meat industry, on A. parasiticus growth and the production of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), aflatoxin G2 (AFG2), and sterigmatocystin (STE) on different meat-based (CMA) and salami model (SM-G) media. Incubation was carried out under optimal conditions for fungal growth and under typical conditions for ripening of DFMPs for 21 days. Reversed-phase UPLC-MS/MS analysis was performed to determine mycotoxin production. SC reduced A. parasiticus growth more on CMA than on SM-G media. AFB1 formation was inhibited on both types of SC-containing media, although SC generally had a stronger inhibitory effect on AFB1 production on CMA than on SM-G. AFB1 and AFB2 were produced on CMA, while AFB1 dominated in SM-G, AFG1, and AFG2 were not detected in any media. The results show that SC inhibited AFB1 formation of A. parasiticus on SM-G media after 21 days of incubation under typical conditions for the production of DFMPs. These results indicate the necessity to investigate AF on natural matrices in an environment that is as similar as possible to real conditions in the production of DFMPs.

Impact of spices and aromatic plants on the growth and mycotoxin production in fungi

Spices and aromatic plants have antioxidant, and antibacterial qualities to extend food shelf life and quality. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) identified mycotoxins in experimental fungus in this study. The mycotoxin analysis showed that Aspergillus terreus, A. nidulans, and F. oxysporum produced aflatoxin B1, G1, and ochratoxin with retention factors of 0.46, 0.48, and 0.56, respectively. The mycelial dry weight method assessed extract inhibition of experimental fungus. Clove extract inhibited fungal proliferation at higher concentrations, reducing mycotoxin generation. As clove extract concentration grew from 10mg/ml to 40mg/ml, A. nidulans mycelia multiplication decreased from 8% to 98%. As extract concentration increased from 10mg/ml to 50mg/ml, F. oxysporum decreased ranged from 53% to 100%. Celery and basil leaf extracts followed similar trends. As extract concentration grew from 10mg/ml to 50mg/ml, aflatoxin and ochratoxin generation were inhibited by 25% to 100% and 57% to 100%, respectively. These extracts may inhibit aflatoxin-producing fungi.

Determination of aflatoxins in rice from Penang, Malaysia by dispersive liquid–liquid micro-extraction and LC–MS/MS

Rice is one of the crops cultivated in Malaysia, and it is the main diet for most of the population. In this study, dispersive liquid–liquid micro-extraction (DLLME) and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) were used to develop, optimise and validate a reliable, easy-to-use and quick approach to detect aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2). The extraction recoveries in DLLME were enhanced by the addition of 5% salt, utilising chloroform as the extraction solvent and acetonitrile as the dispersive solvent. The DLLME parameters – the extraction solvent volume, salt concentration and dispersive solvent volume were optimised with Box–Behnken design (BBD) and response surface methodology (RSM). Under optimised experimental conditions, excellent linearity was obtained with a limit of detection (LOD) ranging from 0.125 to 0.25 ng g−1, a limit of quantitation (LOQ) ranging from 0.25 to 0.3 ng g−1 and a correlation value (R 2) of 0.990. The matrix effects were between −11.1% and 19.9%, and recoveries ranged from 87.4% to 117.3%. The optimised and validated method was used effectively to assess aflatoxins contamination in 20 commercial rice samples collected from local supermarkets in Penang, Malaysia. AFB1 was detected at 0.41–0.43 ng g−1 in two rice samples, below the regulatory limit.

Implementation of netting system for production of ‘Calabacita’ dried figs: Effects on pest incidence, fruit quality and mycotoxin occurrence

In recent decades, the increasing demand for dried figs has led to greater sector professionalisation. However, the drying and harvesting process continues to be carried out traditionally. During this time, the fruit can be damaged by various biotic agents such as birds, insects and fungi. Therefore, this work aimed to evaluate the efficacy of a netting system adapted to the fig tree's canopy, compared to those from traditionally managed ones regarding reduced damage by biotic agents and physicochemical quality of dried figs. Fruit damage, physicochemical and microbiological parameters, and mycotoxin occurrence in figs collected from nets were compared to those from traditionally managed ones. The netting system significantly reduced bird damage from 11.93 to 1.02 % and Lepidopteran damage from 8.11 to 3.74 %, while coleopteran damage remained constant. Additionally, this system led to dried figs with greater fruit size, softer firmness and a lighter reddish-brown colour. In contrast, it did not influence the microbial count of moulds. However, its use significantly reduced the levels and occurrence of most of the detected mycotoxins: aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, ochratoxins A and B, kojic acid, and alternariol. These findings demonstrate its effectiveness in reducing pest incidences and providing dried figs with better physicochemical and hygienic-sanitary quality. This scientific evidence and the improvements that the netting system brings to the harvesting process suggest that its use could lead to more profitable production and have a positive impact on the marketability of dried figs.

Target and suspect screening approaches for the identification of emerging and other contaminants in fish feeds using high resolution mass spectrometry

Fish feed is essential in aquaculture fish production because, along with beneficial nutrients and components, many suspected compounds can be transferred to fish and ultimately to humans. In this context, a comprehensive analysis was conducted to monitor various pesticides and pharmaceutical compounds in aquaculture fish feed through target analysis and many other groups of chemicals via suspect screening approaches. In this study, the QuEChERS extraction method was optimized, validated, and applied to fifty-four fish feed samples collected from different production batches. This was followed by liquid chromatography-high-resolution linear ion trap/Orbitrap mass spectrometry (LC-HR-IT/Orbitrap-MS) for targeted and suspect screening purposes. In general, pesticides provided satisfactory recoveries (70–105.5 %), with quantification limits lower than 5 ng g−1, whereas pharmaceuticals displayed recoveries ranging from 70.5 to 120.2 %, with quantification limits below 25 ng g−1. In addition, the matrix effects and measurement uncertainty were assessed to provide more accurate and high-confidence results. Pirimiphos-methyl was detected and quantified in 20 of 54 fish feed samples (37 %) at concentrations <77 ng g−1. Finally, suspect screening revealed the occurrence of 10 mycotoxins (e.g., citrinin, aflatoxin G2, zearalenone, and alternariol), two pesticides excluding the target pesticides (tebuconazole and fenazaquin), perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) in almost 2 % of the samples, and ethoxyquin (antioxidant), with 12 of its Transformation Products (TPs). Finally, suspect analysis incorporated in routine analyses have proven to have great potential for complete monitoring.

Aflatoxins in Tapioca Gum Marketed in Manaus-AM-Brazil

Introduction: Among the culturally consumed foods in the North and Northeast of Brazil, tapioca gum, derived from cassava, has good popular acceptance, and is used in different culinary preparations. Objective: To assess the presence of aflatoxins in samples of tapioca gum from Manaus. Method: 24 samples of tapioca gum (n=24) were collected from retailers and fairs in the city of Manaus, for the quantification of AFL by means of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), water activity (Aw) and moisture content (mc%). Results: in seven samples, aflatoxin G1 (AFLG1) was detected, representing 29.17% of contamination. The average of Aw was equal to 0.9952 and the mc% was 41.615%. Conclusion: this work presents, in an unprecedented way, the presence of AFLG1 in tapioca gum. The mc% correlated with the presence of AFLG1, while Aw had no effect on AFL. It is not possible to determine the risk of the presence of AFLG1 for human consumption due to the lack of legislation for the product, but the results reflect the manufacturing, storage, and transport practices of local businesses, demonstrating the need for intervention.

In vitro and molecular docking evaluation of target proteins of lipase and protease for the degradation of aflatoxins

The consumption of food contaminated with aflatoxins causes severe harmful health effects, which can lead to death, in both humans and livestock. Therefore, the degradation of aflatoxins, particularly by biological methods, is considered a feasible technology for remediation of aflatoxin-contaminated products. In vitro, aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2 were degraded by 25 U/mL of lipase with reduction percentages of 57.5, 71.7, 80.1, and 83.8%. This reduction increased to 81.3, 82.8, 86.9, and 90.7% via 200 U/mL of lipase, respectively. Protease was less effective than lipase in the degradation of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2 with reduction levels of 35.8, 54.9, 66.5, and 70.2%, respectively, at 25 U/mL of protease. This investigation offers new concepts for the quick screening of aflatoxin-degrading enzymes and offers a theoretical basis for the degradation of aflatoxins. Interactions between aflatoxin B1 (considered as a ligand) and proteins that were taken as receptors (Structure of Lipase PDB ID: 1DT3 and Protease PDB ID: 2PRO) were elucidated. The molecular modeling results of utilized compound showed a notable binding score and best Root Mean Square (RMS) define value, indicating efficient binding mode and appropriate interactions with amino acids of selected proteins.

Feeding Silicoglycidol reduces aflatoxin M1 in dairy cow milk

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a pathogenic metabolite often transferred from feed into milk from aflatoxin (AF) B1, B2, G1, and G2; thus, it poses a human health risk. Therefore, effective mitigation strategies are needed to reduce animal and human exposure to AF. Study objectives were to evaluate a dietary adsorbent (Silicoglycidol, ATX) as a sequestering agent in AF contaminated feed and to broadly examine how AF affects liver function and the immune system. Primiparous Holstein cows (n = 12, 279 ± 88 DIM and 675 ± 19 kg BW) were used in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design with 21-d periods in which d 1–14 were considered adaptation and data collected on d 15 to 21 were used for analysis. Treatments were: 1) control (CON) consisting of a basal diet; 2) AF diet consisting of CON + AF challenge (100 µg of AFB1/kg dry matter intake [DMI]); and 3) AF + ATX supplemented at 0.10% of dietary DMI. Feed intake and milk yield were recorded daily, fecal samples were collected on d 20 of each period, blood and urine samples were collected on d 21 of each period, and milk samples were collected on the last 2 d of each period. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS. Milk yield and DMI were unaffected by treatment (26.8 ± 1.3 kg/d and 24.0 ± 0.9 kg/d, respectively). Similarly, neither milk composition nor DMI digestibility were affected by treatment. No AFM1 was detected in CON cow's milk or urine. Supplementing ATX reduced AFM1 in milk (1.57 vs. 1.14 ± 0.1 µg/L for AF and AF+ATX, respectively) and urine (9.9 vs. 5.6 ± 1.1 µg/L for AF and AF+ATX, respectively). Consuming AF did not affect biomarkers of liver health or immune activation including ALT, AST, GGT, haptoglobin (Hp), and immunoglobulin G (IgG). In summary, feeding ATX reduced the absorption and transfer of dietary AF to milk and urine.

Afflatoxine Effect on Livestock Health: A Review

Aflatoxins have been the cause of numerous deaths in livestock and it also the cause for economic losses. Aflatoxins belong to a group of mycotoxins that are produced by fungi species (molds) as they grow on their substrates. The major ones are aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, thus named depending on their fluorescence under blue and green light. Aspergillus parasiticus can synthesize AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2. AFB1=AFM1&gt;AFG1&gt;AFB2=AFM2&gt;AFG2 from strongest to weakest in terms of toxicity. Pigs so affected became lethargic, did not eat, and eventually became hypothermic, icteric, and had blood in their feces. Acute aflatoxicosis is characterized by an acute hepatotoxic disease that manifests itself with depression, anorexia, jaundice, hemorrhages, edema of the lower extremities, abdominal pain and vomiting. Chronic exposure leads liver cancer. The major target organ for aflatoxins in animals is the liver. Aflatoxins are probably not major causes of livestock disease and low productivity, but are contributing factors which are likely to become more important as livestock production intensifies. The animal feeds most likely to be contaminated are maize, cottonseed, and groundnuts. These feeds are at high risk for aflatoxin contamination. Aflatoxins cannot be detected by sight or smell in contaminated food or feed. Aflatoxins are not eliminated by boiling, cooking, or by processing into compound feeds. Animal source foods, especially milk, may also contain aflatoxins if animals eat contaminated feeds. This is often the case with milk; carry-over rates are relatively high, consumption is high, and milk is often given to infants and young children who are most at-risk for negative health outcomes related to aflatoxin exposure. Affected animals may exhibit reduced feed consumption, weight loss, and reduction in production. The more significant effects in cattle may occur when animals consume lower levels of aflatoxins and chronic effects appear such as reduced reproductivity, immunosuppression, and reduced feed efficiency. An increase in dietary protein protects against adverse effects of the toxin. Feeding of extra vitamins, A and K could also decrease the detrimental effects of aflatoxins. The prevention ways are removing the sources; promotes better agricultural and storage techniques; have good resources for testing and early diagnosis; strict food quality standards; General awareness and personal protection; Better livestock feeding &amp; management.

Occurrence, dietary exposure and risk assessment to aflatoxins in red pepper flakes from Southeast of Türkiye

Aflatoxins contamination of foods is a global issue that severely threatens human health. This study aimed to measure total aflatoxin (AF) (aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2)) levels in red pepper flakes samples and to evaluate the potential dietary exposure and cancer risk to aflatoxin in the southeast of Türkiye. A total of 90 red pepper flake samples were collected from local markets Gaziantep, Şanlıurfa, and Hatay provinces, Türkiye. Total AF in red pepper flakes was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). Then, the margin of exposure (MOE) and cancer risk were calculated. AFB1 and total AF were detected in red pepper flake samples at 98.89% and 100%, respectively. The number of red pepper flake samples exceeded the legislation limits for AFB1 was four, and there was only one sample for total AF. It was determined that AFB1 exposure could pose a risk to public health for Turkish adults (MOE &lt; 10,000). Although AF exposure seems to be higher due to the high consumption of red pepper flakes in some regions of Türkiye, the risk of exposure and cancer may decrease because of complying with the recommendations of the dietary guidelines. The findings provide new insights into exposure to total AF by consuming red pepper flakes.

Assessment of mycotoxin contamination in Rwanda: A comparison of agro-ecological zones

Aflatoxin contamination of maize in Rwanda and underlying causes are poorly documented. This study aimed to address this gap where maize samples for aflatoxins analysis were collected from two different agro-ecological zones and the temperature and relative humidity conditions during the time preceding sample collection were monitored to determine the conditions conducive to this contamination. Maize was analysed for moisture content and aflatoxin contamination and the temperature and humidity data were used to estimate the saturation deficit of the ambient air as an indicator of risk of contamination, which is high when the saturation deficit is low. Results showed an average lower saturation deficit of 0.0018 kg H₂O kg−1 in the high-altitude Volcanic region compared to the 0.00095 kg H₂O kg−1 recorded in the lower altitude region of the Eastern Savannah. Given the high moisture content in most of the analysed samples, this meant that it is more challenging to dry maize to the safe storage moisture content in the Volcanic region compared to the Eastern Savannah. The mean aflatoxin contamination was 40.45 μg kg−1 in the Volcanic region significantly higher than 4.66 μg kg−1 in the Eastern Savannah. Aflatoxin G1 was predominant among the contaminated samples. Affordable drying technologies that use renewable sources of energy should be developed and made accessible to farmer cooperatives.

Efficiency of cold atmospheric plasma under ozone (O3) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) regimes on the degradation of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in solid state and in spiked pistachio kernels

Mycotoxins are the primary contaminants in food that have a significant impact on global food safety and security. Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) has demonstrated significant potential in reducing mycotoxins among innovative technologies. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a surface dielectric barrier discharge (SDBD) CAP system in reducing aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and ochratoxin A (OTA). The distinctive feature of the device here used was the ability to operate at two different powers, resulting in two different plasma reactive species ambients: ozone (O3) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) regimes. CAP treatments exhibited a significant reduction of all investigated pure mycotoxins, which was regime, molecule chemical structure, distance from the source and time-dependent. In particular, O3 regime was more effective (AFB1 and AFG1 99%, AFB2 and AFG2 60%, OTA 70% reduction, respectively, at 60 min, 4 cm distance from the plasma source). As low-moisture foods pistachio kernels (Pistacia vera L. seeds) were selected to evaluate the matrix effect. As expected, the mycotoxins were reduced to a much lesser extent than pure molecules. Worthy of note was the 23% reduction of OTA. To our best knowledge, this is the first investigation about OTA degradation in pistachio food matrix by cold plasma. It should also be noted that the pistachios have been artificially contaminated with spots of a mixture of mycotoxins, to best represent a probable real contamination.

Density Functional Study of Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2: NBO and AIM Analyses

Aflatoxin, belonging to the bisfuranocoumarine group of organic compounds, encompasses several species such as aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2. In this study, geometry optimizations of these aflatoxins were conducted using density functional theory at the B3LYP/6-311G (d, p) level of theory. The computational findings reveal that aflatoxin B1, known for its toxicity, exhibits greater instability. Atom in molecule analysis reveals the presence of a partial covalent intra-molecular bond at C6- O5. Furthermore, the natural bond orbital calculations demonstrate that the structures of the highest occupied molecular orbital and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital are identical for all four studied aflatoxins, albeit with different energies. Aflatoxins B1 and B2 are determined to be harder species compared to aflatoxins G1 and G2.