Aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus Flavus Research Articles

Inhibition of Aflatoxin Production in Aspergillus flavus by a Klebsiella sp. and Its Metabolite Cyclo(l-Ala-Gly).

During an experiment where we were cultivating aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus on peanuts, we accidentally discovered that a bacterium adhering to the peanut strongly inhibited aflatoxin (AF) production by A. flavus. The bacterium, isolated and identified as Klebsiella aerogenes, was found to produce an AF production inhibitor. Cyclo(l-Ala-Gly), isolated from the bacterial culture supernatant, was the main active component. The aflatoxin production-inhibitory activity of cyclo(l-Ala-Gly) has not been reported. Cyclo(l-Ala-Gly) inhibited AF production in A. flavus without affecting its fungal growth in a liquid medium with stronger potency than cyclo(l-Ala-l-Pro). Cyclo(l-Ala-Gly) has the strongest AF production-inhibitory activity among known AF production-inhibitory diketopiperazines. Related compounds in which the methyl moiety in cyclo(l-Ala-Gly) is replaced by ethyl, propyl, or isopropyl have shown much stronger activity than cyclo(l-Ala-Gly). Cyclo(l-Ala-Gly) did not inhibit recombinant glutathione-S-transferase (GST) in A. flavus, unlike (l-Ala-l-Pro), which showed that the inhibition of GST was not responsible for the AF production-inhibition of cyclo(l-Ala-Gly). When A. flavus was cultured on peanuts dipped for a short period of time in a dilution series bacterial culture broth, AF production in the peanuts was strongly inhibited, even at a 1 × 104-fold dilution. This strong inhibitory activity suggests that the bacterium is a candidate for an effective biocontrol agent for AF control.

Antifungal and Antiaflatoxigenic Activities of Massoia Essential Oil and C10 Massoia Lactone against Aflatoxin-Producing Aspergillus flavus.

Fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination are major hazards to the safe storage and distribution of foods and feeds consumed by humans and livestock. This study investigated the antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities of massoia essential oil (MEO) and its major constituent, C10 massoia lactone (C10), against aflatoxin B (AFB)-producing Aspergillus flavus ATCC 22546. Their antifungal activities were evaluated using a disc diffusion assay, agar dilution method, and a mycelial growth inhibition assay with the AFB analysis using liquid chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. MEO and C10 exhibited similar antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities against A. flavus. C10 was a primary constituent in MEO and represented up to 45.1% of total peak areas analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, indicating that C10 is a major compound contributing to the antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities of MEO. Interestingly, these two materials increased AFB production in A. flavus by upregulating the expression of most genes related to AFB biosynthesis by 3- to 60-fold. Overall, MEO and C10 could be suitable candidates as natural preservatives to control fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination in foods and feeds as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) in the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association of the United States (FEMA), and MEO is a more suitable substance than C10 because of its wider range of uses and higher allowed concentration than C10.

Correlation between Aspergillus flavus fungal biomass and aflatoxin contamination in harvested maize: insights from Kenya and Tanzania

Controlling the occurrence of aflatoxins in foods must be accompanied by managing the fungi responsible for their production. The abundance and diversity of aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus are responsible for the accumulation of these toxins in crops, posing a persistent threat to public health and the economy in tropical developing countries. A study was conducted to investigate the occurrence and level of A. flavus and relate them to aflatoxin levels in maize in Kenya and Tanzania. A total of 786 maize samples were collected during harvesting in selected areas of the two countries for analysis. The fungal abundance in the samples was measured as the amount of fungal DNA relative to maize DNA. This was accomplished by quantifying the fungal DNA using qPCR, targeting the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene, while the maize DNA was quantified through the alpha-tubulin gene, the two genes known to be conserved. Aflatoxins were quantified using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography, coupled with ultra-high sensitivity, ultra-fast triple quadrupole tandem-mass spectrophotometer. A. flavus was detected in 88.5% of the 786 tested samples, and the average fungal load for these samples (expressed as the log host/pathogen ratio) was 5.53. Aflatoxin occurrence was positive in 31.9% of the samples, with an average level of 2.3 ± 0.643 ppb. The study established a positive relationship between the occurrence and level of aflatoxin B1 and the presence and biomass of A. flavus, which was statistically proven. These findings emphasize the need to place substantial attention on preharvest control of A. flavus in cereal fields as an effort to control the accumulation of aflatoxin B1 in foods.

Effects of Oleic Acid and Temperature on Aflatoxin Production in Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus

Effects of Oleic Acid and Temperature on Aflatoxin Production in Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus

Effects of Four Isothiocyanates in Dissolved and Gaseous States on the Growth and Aflatoxin Production of Aspergillus flavus In Vitro.

Aflatoxins (AFs), a class of toxins produced by certain species of the genus Aspergillus, occasionally contaminate food and cause serious damage to human health and the economy. AFs contamination is a global problem, and there is a need to develop effective strategies to control aflatoxigenic fungi. In this study, we focused on isothiocyanates (ITCs) as potential chemical agents for the control of aflatoxigenic fungi. We quantitatively evaluated the effects of four ITCs (allyl ITC (AITC), benzyl ITC (BITC), and methyl and phenylethyl ITCs) in dissolved and gaseous states on the growth and aflatoxin B1 production of Aspergillus flavus. In experiments using dissolved ITCs, BITC was found to be the strongest inhibitor of growth and aflatoxin B1 production by A. flavus. Meanwhile, in the gaseous state, AITC strongly inhibited the A. flavus growth. When the concentration of ITCs in the liquid medium was quantified over time, AITC levels decreased to below the detection limit within 24 h, whereas BITC levels remained stable even after 48 h. These results suggested that when ITCs are utilized to control aflatoxigenic fungi, it is necessary to use them in a dissolved or gaseous state, depending on their volatility.

Volatiles of antagonistic soil yeasts inhibit growth and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus flavus

Minimizing Aspergillus flavus growth is an effective strategy to mitigate aflatoxin contamination in food and agricultural products. In the present investigation, we attempted to utilize soil-associated yeasts from the Western and Eastern Ghats of India against A. flavus to reduce aflatoxin contamination. Forty-five yeast isolates were screened against A. flavus using overlay and dual plate assays. Among them, 12 isolates effectively inhibited the growth of A. flavus. The 18S rDNA gene sequence analysis identified the twelve antagonistic isolates as belonging to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Suhomyces xylopsoci, Pichia kudriavzevii, and Candida tropicalis. From the isolated yeasts, S. cerevisiae strains were selected for further evaluation based on the potential antagonistic activity. Volatiles of S. cerevisiae effectively suppressed the mycelial growth of A. flavus (P < 0.05) up to 92.1 % at 7 DAI. Scanning electron microscopic images of the fungus exposed to volatiles showed hyphal deformity and mycelial damage. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) production was drastically reduced up to 99.0 % in the volatile-exposed fungus compared to the control. The yeast strain YKK1 showed consistent Aspergillus flavus growth inhibition (80.7 %) and AFB1 production (98.1 %) for 14 days. Gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry analysis of the yeast volatiles revealed the presence of antimicrobial compounds, including 1-pentanol, 1-propanol, ethyl hexanol, ethanol, 2-methyl-1-butanol, ethyl acetate, dimethyl trisulfide, p-xylene, styrene, and 1,4-pentadiene. The evaluated compounds of yeast volatiles, including ethyl acetate, hexanal, 1-propanol, 1-heptanol, 1-butanol, and benzothiazole, inhibited the fungal growth and AFB1 production of Aspergillus flavus when applied as pure chemicals. Benzothiazole at 5 mM was responsible for a high level of growth inhibition (23.6 %) and reduction of AFB1 synthesis (93.5 %). Hence, volatile compounds produced by soil yeast strains could be a potential biocontrol mechanism against aflatoxin contamination.

The application of novel rotary plasma jets to inhibit the aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus and the spoilage fungus, Aspergillus niger on peanuts

The major safety risk of peanuts is contamination with aflatoxin. Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) has been demonstrated to inactivate fungi effectively. In this study, a novel CAP device with a rotary jet system was used to inactivate the existing A. flavus and A. niger on peanuts. The initial inoculation levels were 6.39 and 5.83 log CFU/g of A. flavus and A. niger, respectively. After treatments at 180 W for 7.5 min and 200 W for 5 min, A. flavus was not detected. For A. niger, the treatments at 180 W for 10 min and 200 W for 5 min resulted in undetected population. Observation under scanning electron microscope revealed the fungal spores were evidently damaged. The growth of A. flavus and aflatoxin concentrations were significantly lower (p < 0.05) on the group treated with 200 W for 5 min than other treatment groups stored for 29 d. Oil quality indexes of the CAP-treated peanuts were maintained in the range of excellent grades. This study demonstrated CAP effectively inhibited fungal growth and toxin production without adversely affected oil quality.

Draft Genome Sequence of an Aflatoxin-Producing Aspergillus flavus Strain Isolated from Food.

ABSTRACTAspergillus flavus is the main producer of carcinogenic aflatoxins and thus is one of the most important fungal food contaminants. Here, we report that the genome of A. flavus strain MRI19 was sequenced using MiSeq and PacBio platforms and that a hybrid assembly was generated.

Inhibitory Effect of Lactic Acid Bacteria on Aflatoxin B1 Producing Aspergillus flavus Isolated from Garri

Among the potential benefits of probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is their practical use for biopreservation of foods, fungal decontamination, and novel biotherapy. A number of ready to eat foods hawked in streets of Nigeria such as garri are prone to contamination by mycotoxin-producing fungi. In this study the inhibitory effect of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (sourced from local foods (nono and kunun- zaki)) and their bacteriocins-derivatives on aflatoxin B1 -producing Aspergelius flavus was conducted. Out of the five LAB isolates screened three (two strains of Lactococcus and one of Pediococcus sp had high indices of probiotic potentials and bacteriocins extracts were obtained from them and used for the inhibition study. Fourty samples of garri sold in Jos metropolis were screened for A. flavus and their abilities to produce Aflatoxin B1 using the Coconut Extract Agar (CEA) and Ammonia Vapour Test (AVP) methods. The three most probiotic LAB and their respective crude baterioncin extracts were used to test for their inhibitory effect on aflatoxin producing A. flavus isolates. The results of the study showed that while only 17 samples (42.50%) had A. flavus in them, only three of the fungi ((17.65%) demonstrated capacity to produce Aflatoxin B1, making (7.5% of the total number of garri samples that had aflatoxin-producing A. flavus. The inhibition of fungal growth by LAB and bacteriocins was dose dependent. At an inoculum concentration of 1 ml, Pediococcus sp had the highest mean zone of inhibition of 43.0 mm followed by Lactococcus sp (Strain LAC20G with radial diameter 38.0mm and Lactococcus sp (LAC20G) which had a radial diameter of 29.3mm respectively. The results of the study portend that the growth of aflatoxin producing Aspergillus flavus in ready to eat foods such as garri could be prevented by application of appropriate dosages of bacteriocins extracts from lactic acid bacteria.

Antagonistic activity of Wickerhamomyces anomalus, Kluyveromyces marxianus and Lactobacillus paracasei against growth and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus flavus in corn silage

Antagonistic activity of Wickerhamomyces anomalus, Kluyveromyces marxianus and Lactobacillus paracasei against growth and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus flavus in corn silage

Enzymatic degradation is an effective means to reduce aflatoxin contamination in maize

BackgroundAflatoxins are carcinogenic compounds produced by certain species of Aspergillus fungi. The consumption of crops contaminated with this toxin cause serious detrimental health effects, including death, in both livestock and humans. As a consequence, both the detection and quantification of this toxin in food/feed items is tightly regulated with crops exceeding the allowed limits eliminated from food chains. Globally, this toxin causes massive agricultural and economic losses each year.ResultsIn this paper we investigate the feasibility of using an aflatoxin-degrading enzyme strategy to reduce/eliminate aflatoxin loads in developing maize kernels. We used an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) targeted sub-cellular compartmentalization stabilizing strategy to accumulate an aflatoxin-degrading enzyme isolated from the edible Honey mushroom Armillariella tabescens and expressed it in embryo tissue in developing maize kernels. Three transgenic maize lines that were determined to be expressing the aflatoxin-degrading enzyme both at the RNA and protein level, were challenged with the aflatoxin-producing strain Aspergillus flavus AF13 and shown to accumulate non-detectable levels of aflatoxin at 14-days post-infection and significantly reduced levels of aflatoxin at 30-days post-infection compared to nontransgenic control Aspergillus-challenged samples.ConclusionsThe expression of an aflatoxin-degrading enzyme in developing maize kernels was shown to be an effective means to control aflatoxin in maize in pre-harvest conditions. This aflatoxin-degradation strategy could play a significant role in the enhancement of both US and global food security and sustainability.

Effect of in-package gas composition on growth and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus flavus in culture medium and red pepper

In this study, the effect of in-package gas composition on growth and aflatoxin production of toxigenic Aspergillus flavus was investigated. For this purpose, semi-dried red pepper samples and potato dextrose agar media with different pH values (3.5, 5.6, 7.0 and 9.0) were inoculated with A. flavus and packaged under different gas atmospheres (air, 100% N2, 70% N2 + 30% CO2 and 100% CO2). The growth of the fungus was monitored during storage at 25 °C for 8 days and the aflatoxin levels produced were determined at the end of storage. The highest growth rate was observed in the medium at pH 9.0 and the highest toxin production was in the medium at pH 5.6. Slowdowns up to 55.6% and 28.0% in the growth of A. flavus in the culture medium and red pepper were observed when packaging under 100% N2 was employed. It was found that 70% N2 + 30% CO2 atmosphere was more effective than 100% N2 in inhibiting the growth of A. flavus in red peppers; however, the difference between the aflatoxin levels produced in the samples packaged under these gas compositions was not significant (p > 0.05). CO2 concentrations higher than 90% in the package were quite effective against A. flavus resulting in 60% and 99% reductions in the growth and aflatoxin production of the fungus in red pepper.

Detection of aflatoxin producing Aspergillus flavus from animal feed in Karnataka, India.

Aflatoxins are toxic carcinogenic secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus flavus and are responsible for contamination in animal feed. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of aflatoxin contamination in animal feed in Karnataka state, India. The screening was performed by desiccated coconut agar and quantification of aflatoxin by liquid ammonia vapor test, TLC and ELISA. A total of 29 samples received from different places of Karnataka were analysed for aflatoxin B1. Out of 29 animal feed sample aflatoxin B1 detected in 12 samples representing 41.38% at average concentration of 288.50 μg/kg. Out of 42 isolates screened in animal feed, Aspergillus flavus was found to be in 86.2% and Aspergillus niger was 24.1%. It was observed that out of 42 isolates analyzed from animal feed, aflatoxin B1 was detected in 12 samples. Aflatoxin B1 is the most common contaminant and the method is more sensitive in screening and detection of aflatoxin B1 in the animal feed.

The effectiveness of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in inhibiting aflatoxin production and reducing the harmful effects of aflatoxin in ducklings

Sacharomyces cerevisiae isolates were obtained from baker's yeast, soil, fruit and identified with PCR. Twenty-seven isolates of S. cerevisiae were screened for capacity of inhibition of aflatoxin production of Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) on coconut extract agar media (CEA). The results showed that the coculture method of S. cerevisiae isolates and aflatoxin producing A. flavus on CEA medium could be used for screening the strains that are able to antagonize aflatoxin-producing A. flavus. On ground corn medium, with the rate of 104 aflatoxin-producing A. flavus spores and 108 S. cerevisiae yeast cells/g, S. cerevisiae was able to reduce the amount of aflatoxin produced by A. flavus in corn. In an in vivo experiment, it was found that addition of 108 cells of S. cerevisiae to one kg of duck feed contaminated with 300 ppb aflatoxin from 1 to 10 days of age reduced adverse effects of aflatoxin on the liver and kidneys of ducks

Effects of temperature and relative humidity on Aflatoxin B1 reduction in corn grains and antagonistic activities against Aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus by a volatile organic compound-producing yeast, Kwoniella heveanensis DMKU-CE82

As shown in our previous study, Kwoniella heveanensis DMKU-CE82, a volatile organic compound (VOC)-producing yeast, demonstrated promising antagonistic activity against aflatoxin-producing strain of Aspergillus flavus. This yeast’s volatile organic compounds (VOCs) could reduce Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in corn grains. In the current study, we evaluated the effect of temperatures and relative humidity on AFB1 reduction during grain storage when co-incubated with this VOC-producing yeast. The VOCs produced by K. heveanensis DMKU-CE82 could promote reduction of AFB1 to less than 20 part per billion (ppb) in the fungal contaminated corn grains under most storage conditions at 35 °C. The major VOCs produced by 2-, 4-, and 6-day-old yeast cultures were closely matched to 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-methyl-1-butanol, hydrazine-1-1-dimethyl, and butanoic acid-3-methyl. In addition, this yeast strain had the ability to produce β-1,3-glucanase, amylase, cellulase, chitinase, siderophores, and biofilms. Scanning electron microscopy also confirmed the antagonistic activity of K. heveanensis DMKU-CE82 as it caused structural damage to conidia and inhibited the development of mycelia and conidiophores in both direct fungal–yeast interaction and the VOC method in corn grains. These results demonstrated that this yeast strain could be a promising biocontrol agent against aflatoxin-producing fungi in agricultural products.

Using Trichoderma Species in Combination with Cattle Dung as Soil Amendment Improves Yield and Reduces Pre-Harvest Aflatoxin Contamination in Groundnut

Aflatoxin contamination in groundnut constitutes a serious risk to human and animal health. The efficacy of combining five Trichoderma species and cattle dung in the management of aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus under laboratory and field conditions was evaluated. Trichoderma asperellum, T. hamatum, T. viride, T. harzianum and T. pseudokoningii were bioassayed against A. flavus in vitro, while they were applied in combination with cattle dung in the field experiment. A randomized complete block design was used for field treatments with four replications. Trichoderma containing 2.3×108 cfu/gr was applied as seed treatment, while soil application was done using 2.5 kg/ha of sorghum grains as carrier and 5 t/ha cattle dung. Aflatoxin concentration was quantified using high-performance thin-layer chromatography. There was no significant difference among the treatments in the laboratory experiment. However, T. harzianum was the most effective with 72.3% mycelial inhibition of A. flavus. Seed treatment with combination of T. harzianum and cattle dung was most effective in reducing A. flavus soil population to 1.1×103 cfu/gr, while the combination of T. hamatum and cattle dung produced the highest pod yield of 2.7 t/ha, which was significantly higher than carbendazim fungicide. Therefore, integrated approach is recommended in managing aflatoxin contamination in pre-harvest groundnut.

Dioctatin Activates ClpP to Degrade Mitochondrial Components and Inhibits Aflatoxin Production

Aflatoxin contamination of crops is a serious problem worldwide. Utilization of aflatoxin production inhibitors is attractive, as the elucidation of their modes of action contributes to clarifying the mechanism of aflatoxin production. Here, we identified mitochondrial protease ClpP as the target of dioctatin, an inhibitor of aflatoxin production of Aspergillus flavus. Dioctatin conferred uncontrolled caseinolytic capacity on ClpP of A.flavus and Escherichia coli. Dioctatin-bound ClpP selectively degraded mitochondrial energy-related proteins invitro, including a subunit of respiratory chain complex V, which was also reduced by dioctatin in a ClpP-dependent manner invivo. Dioctatin enhanced glycolysis and alcohol fermentation while reducing tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolites. These disturbances were accompanied by reduced histone acetylation and reduced expression of aflatoxin biosynthetic genes. Our results suggest that dioctatin inhibits aflatoxin production by inducing ClpP-mediated degradation of mitochondrial energy-related components, and that mitochondrial energy metabolism functions as a key determinant of aflatoxin production.

Genetic diversity of aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus isolated from selected groundnut growing agro-ecological zones of Uganda

BackgroundGroundnut pre- and post-harvest contamination is commonly caused by fungi from the Genus Aspergillus. Aspergillus flavus is the most important of these fungi. It belongs to section Flavi; a group consisting of aflatoxigenic (A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nomius) and non-aflatoxigenic (A. oryzae, A. sojae and A. tamarii) fungi. Aflatoxins are food-borne toxic secondary metabolites of Aspergillus species associated with severe hepatic carcinoma and children stuntedness. Despite the well-known public health significance of aflatoxicosis, there is a paucity of information about the prevalence, genetic diversity and population structure of A. flavus in different groundnut growing agro-ecological zones of Uganda. This cross-sectional study was therefore conducted to fill this knowledge gap.ResultsThe overall pre- and post-harvest groundnut contamination rates with A. flavus were 30.0 and 39.2% respectively. Pre- and post-harvest groundnut contamination rates with A. flavus across AEZs were; 2.5 and 50.0%; (West Nile), 55.0 and 35.0% (Lake Kyoga Basin) and 32.5 and 32.5% (Lake Victoria Basin) respectively. There was no significant difference (χ2 = 2, p = 0.157) in overall pre- and post-harvest groundnut contamination rates with A. flavus and similarly no significant difference (χ2 = 6, p = 0.199) was observed in the pre- and post-harvest contamination of groundnut with A. flavus across the three AEZs. The LKB had the highest incidence of aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus isolates while WN had no single Aspergillus isolate with aflatoxin-producing potential. Aspergillus isolates from the pre-harvest groundnut samples had insignificantly higher incidence of aflatoxin production (χ2 = 2.667, p = 0.264) than those from the post-harvest groundnut samples. Overall, A. flavus isolates exhibited moderate level (92%, p = 0.02) of genetic diversity across the three AEZs and low level (8%, p = 0.05) of genetic diversity within the individual AEZs. There was a weak positive correlation (r = 0.1241, p = 0.045) between genetic distance and geographic distance among A. flavus populations in the LKB, suggesting that genetic differentiation in the LKB population might be associated to geographic distance. A very weak positive correlation existed between genetic variation and geographic location in the entire study area (r = 0.01, p = 0.471), LVB farming system (r = 0.0141, p = 0.412) and WN farming system (r = 0.02, p = 0.478). Hierarchical clustering using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic means (UPGMA) revealed two main clusters of genetically similar A. flavus isolates.ConclusionsThese findings provide evidence that genetic differentiation in A. flavus populations is independent of geographic distance. This information can be valuable in the development of a suitable biocontrol management strategy of aflatoxin-producing A. flavus.

The MAP kinase AflSlt2 modulates aflatoxin biosynthesis and peanut infection in the fungus Aspergillus flavus

Aflatoxin contamination in food and feed products has been brought into sharp focus over the last few decades in the world. However, there is no effective strategy for solving the problem thus far. Therefore, basic research on the aflatoxin-producer Aspergillus flavus is an urgent need. The vital role of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in signal transduction has been documented in various pathogenic fungi, but their functions in A. flavus have rarely been investigated. Herein, we characterized the detailed function of one of these MAPKs, AflSlt2. Targeted deletion of AflSlt2 gene indicates that this kinase is required for vegetative growth, conidia generation, and sclerotium formation. The analysis of AflSlt2 deletion mutant revealed hypersensitivity to cell wall-damaging chemicals and resistance against hydrogen peroxide. Interestingly, the ability of the ΔAflSlt2 mutant to generate aflatoxins in medium was significantly increased compared to wild type. However, a pathogenicity assay indicated that the ΔAflSlt2 mutant was deficient in peanut infection. Site-directed mutation study uncovered that the function of AflSlt2 was dependent on the phosphorylated residues (Thr-186 and Tyr-188) within the activation loop and the phosphotransfer residue (Lys-52) within the subdomain II. Interestingly, an autophosphorylation mutant of AflSlt2 (AflSlt2R66S) displayed wild type-like phenotypes. Bringing these observations together, we propose that Slt2-MAPK pathway is involved in development, stress response, aflatoxin biosynthesis, and pathogenicity in A. flavus. This study may be useful to unveil the regulation mechanism of aflatoxin biosynthesis and provide strategy to control A. flavus contamination.

Correction to: Biological control of aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus by volatile organic compound-producing antagonistic yeasts

In the original article, in the last sentence of the subsection 'Efficacy of VOC-producing yeasts on fungal conidial germination inhibition' in Materials and Methods, it should have read 3 = germ tube 2x to 4x instead of 3 = germ tube 24x to 4x.