Aflatoxins In Maize Research Articles

Unusual pattern of aflatoxins and ochratoxin in commercially grown maize varieties of Pakistan

The contamination of food with mycotoxins could be a major health risk. Identification and quantification of mycotoxins in maize are essentially required to guarantee food safety. Seven commonly grown maize cultivars were sown at semi-arid conditions in Pakistan. After harvesting plants, total aflatoxin (AFs), aflatoxins B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and ochratoxin-A (OTA) contents were determined in maize flour using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results showed an unusual pattern of AFs in maize with a higher concentration of AFG1 in all maize varieties. The AFB1 was not found in most of the samples, however, all maize grains contained AFs above the maximum tolerable limit (20 μg/kg). The highest concentration of AFs was recorded in Ayub-1/26 maize (362.8 μg/kg). Ochratoxin-A (OTA) was detected in 71% maize samples ranged from 2.14 to 214 μg/kg. The highest OTA and microbial load were recorded in Ayub-2/27 grains that exceeded the FDA limit (50 μg/kg). These results indicated the higher prevalence of total AFs, AFG1, and OTA at the harvest stage of maize that could pose significant health hazards to humans and livestock.

Risk Estimation of Hepatocellular Carcinoma due to Exposure to Aflatoxins in Maize from Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Background: Besides their mutagenic, carcinogenic, and teratogenic effects, Aflatoxins (AFs) also act as the main contributor to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) which is known as the most common primary liver cancer worldwide. The main aim of this study was risk estimation of HCC due to exposure to aflatoxins in maize from Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Methods: As a model, maize samples were taken from Yogyakarta province, Indonesia. The present research was conducted by risk assessment approach which includes hazard identification, hazard characterization, exposure assessment, and risk characterization. The aflatoxin analysis was performed using High Performance Liquid Chromatography method and the secondary data was taken from the province report. Results: The mean total AF in raw material, dried maize chips, and fried chips were 46.58, 17.58, and 13.24 ppb, respectively. The raw material clearly had higher level of all AF types. The mean of contamination of total AF in raw material (46.58 ppb) exceeded the standard level (20 ppb), while the other products were not more than standard level. The yearly maximum exposure to AFB1 ranged from 85.07 to 92.80 ng/kg body weight per day. The estimation of HCC cases ranged from no case to 43 cases per year. Conclusion: Preventive hygienic efforts are needed to reduce AF contamination and risk of HCC in maize consumed in this region of Indonesia.

Effects of Farmers’ Practices on Maize (<i>Zea mays</i>) Contamination by Potential Aflatoxigenic Fungi and Aflatoxin in Benue State, Nigeria

Aflatoxin associated with a number of cereals and legumes is estimated to increase the chances of developing primary liver cancer in 152.7 and 61.1 cancer/year/100,000 population of infants and children, respectively in Nigeria. This study was carried out to assess the implications of some agronomic practices on the infestation of aflatoxigenic fungi and total aflatoxin in maize produce in Benue State. Two maize sample types (Pre-harvest and Post-harvest) collected from 3 locations in Benue State were cultured on Sabouraud dextrose agar for fungi isolation and identification. Moisture content and total aflatoxin concentration were determined (ELISA method) in both pre-harvest oven dried and farmer’s post-harvest sun dried samples. Information on agronomic practices was obtained with the aid of questionnaire. T-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to analyze the data with confident levels set at 95%. Overall, 5 mould genera were identified: Aspergillus (44.0%), Fusarium (24.44%), Botryodiplodia (17.78%), Rhizopus (15.56%) and Penicillium (4.44%). Moisture content of oven dried samples was significantly less than that of farmers sun dried samples (t = 10.45, P < 0.001). Similarly, a significant difference in total aflatoxin concentration was recorded between farmers sun dried and oven dried samples (t = 2.37, P = 0.03). Half of the farmer’s sun dried samples had aflatoxin concentration above the recommended EU (4 ug/Kg) limit, but none of the pre-harvest oven dried samples exceeded EU limits. Maize samples from fertilized farms were more likely than non-fertilized farms to have higher aflatoxin concentration (P = 0.002). Similarly, Maize seeds purchase from the open market were more likely than seeds from previous harvest to be contaminated with aflatoxin (P = 0.003). The study advocates rapid drying of timely harvested maize so as to reduce or stop the action of heavy field fungi contaminants as well as aflatoxin accumulation.

Interference of mycotoxin binders with ELISA, HPLC and LC-MS/MS analysis of aflatoxins in maize and maize gluten

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study was to investigate the impact of mycotoxin binders on the determination of aflatoxins in maize and maize gluten using various analytical methods, including ELISA, HPLC and LC-MS/MS. Three types of commercially available mycotoxin binders, yeast cell wall, mineral, and a mixture of mineral and bacterium, were investigated at inclusion levels of 0.1%, 0.2% and 0.4%. The binders were added to maize and maize gluten contaminated with aflatoxins at concentrations between 6.9 and 26.7 μg kg−1. The samples were analysed and the values were compared with corresponding controls (samples without binders) using ANOVA. The yeast cell wall binder had no significant effect (p=0.05) on the concentration of aflatoxins measured in either maize or maize gluten at any of the three inclusion levels, regardless of which analytical method was used. The mineral binder and the mixed mineral and bacterium binder had no significant effect (p=0.05) on the measured aflatoxin concentrations in either maize or maize gluten at any of the three inclusion levels when analysis was conducted using LC-MS/MS. Inclusion of these binders resulted in significant lower (p<0.01) detection of aflatoxins in both maize and maize gluten when analysis was conducted using ELISA; the effect was dose-dependent. They also resulted in significant lower detection of aflatoxins in maize extracted by methanol/water (70/30 v/v) (p<0.0001) and in maize gluten extracted by acetonitrile/water (80/20 v/v) (p<0.05) when analysis was conducted using HPLC. However, neither the mineral binder nor the mixed mineral and bacterium binder had significant effects (p=0.05) on aflatoxin concentrations measured in maize using HPLC, when extracted by acetonitrile/water (80/20 v/v). The study demonstrated that mycotoxin binders could result in underestimation of the levels of aflatoxin contamination, depending on the nature of the binder, the extraction solvent used in the analytical method, and the composition of tested sample.

Evaluation of Elite Maize Inbred Lines for Reduced Aspergillus flavus Infection, Aflatoxin Accumulation, and Agronomic Traits

ABSTRACTMycotoxins produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus are harmful to humans and animals and result in large economic losses. Developing and disseminating resistant germplasm is a critical component to reduce or eliminate the accumulation of pre‐harvest aflatoxins in maize (Zea mays L.). Ninety‐three different inbred lines were evaluated for seven standard agronomic traits during the years of 2012 to 2016 in two locations (nine environments), and inoculated with A. flavus. Multiple inbreds were both lower accumulating for aflatoxins and higher yielding than aflatoxin tolerant and high yielding checks. The top seven inbred lines on average had an aflatoxin value of 14.1 ng g−1 and an average yield of 3.2 Mg ha−1, while the susceptible checks were 185.9 ng g−1 and 2.5 Mg ha−1, respectively. Several inbred lines evaluated in this study have high potential utility in future maize improvement research, such as breeding for resistance, segregating populations for genetic mapping as well as in direct use in hybrids with genetically improved resistance to A. flavus.

Aflatoxin-producing fungi associated with pre-harvest maize contamination in Uganda

Maize is an important staple crop for the majority of the population in Uganda. However, in tropical and subtropical climates, maize is frequently contaminated with aflatoxins, a group of cancer-causing and immuno-suppressive mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus section Flavi fungi. In Uganda, there is limited knowledge about the causal agents of aflatoxin contamination. The current study determined both the aflatoxin levels in pre-harvest maize across Uganda and the structures of communities of aflatoxin-producing fungi associated with the maize. A total of 256 pre-harvest maize samples were collected from 23 major maize-growing districts in eight agro-ecological zones (AEZ). Maize aflatoxin content ranged from 0 to 3760 ng/g although only around 5% for Ugandan thresholds. For EU it is about 16% of the samples contained aflatoxin concentrations above tolerance thresholds. A total of 3105 Aspergillus section Flavi isolates were recovered and these were dominated by the A. flavus L morphotype (89.4%). Densities of aflatoxin-producing fungi were negatively correlated with elevation. Farming systems and climatic conditions of the AEZ are thought to have influenced communities' structure composition. Fungi from different AEZ varied significantly in aflatoxin-producing abilities and several atoxigenic genotypes were identified. The extremely high aflatoxin concentrations detected in some of the studied regions indicate that management strategies should be urgently designed for use at the pre-harvest stage. Atoxigenic genotypes detected across Uganda could serve as aflatoxin biocontrol agents to reduce crop contamination from fields conditions and throughout the maize value chain.

Association of Insect-Derived Ear Injury With Yield and Aflatoxin of Maize Hybrids Varying in Bt Transgenes.

Environmental factors have been associated with the production of aflatoxin in maize, Zea mays L., and it is inconclusive whether transgenic, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), maize has an impact on aflatoxin accumulation. Maize hybrids differing in transgenes were planted in two locations from 2014 to 2017. Yield, aflatoxin, and ear injury caused by corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), and fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), were measured across three groups of hybrids differing in transgenes including near-isogenic hybrids, and water-stressed conditions. The hybrid groups consisted of non-Bt hybrids with no Bt transgenes, a second group with one or more Cry-Bt transgenes, and the third group with vegetative insecticidal Bt protein and Cry-Bt transgenes (Cry/Vip-Bt). Across the six data sets derived from 11 experiments, the Cry-Bt and Cry/Vip-Bt hybrids had less ear injury and aflatoxin on average than non-Bt hybrids. The effects of ear injury on yield and aflatoxin were more prominent and consistent in Corpus Christi, TX, where hybrids experienced more water-limited conditions than in College Station, TX. The trend of increased aflatoxin among hybrids with increased ear injury was further resolved when looking at Cry-Bt and Cry/Vip-Bt isogenic hybrids in Corpus Christi. The results supported that the maize hybrids with the inclusion of Cry-Bt and Cry/Vip-Bt transgenes warrant further investigation in an integrated approach to insect and aflatoxin management in sub-tropical rain-fed maize production regions. Research outcomes may be improved by focusing on areas prone to water-stress and by using hybrids with similar genetic backgrounds.

Optimization and validation of a liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the determination of aflatoxins in maize

A LC-MS/MS method has been optimized and validated for the determination of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2) in maize. Extraction was performed using a modified QuEChERS method with little sample preparation without the need for purification procedure. Determination was performed by high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). The acquisition was performed using MassHunter software in Multiple Reaction Monitoring (MRM) mode in positive polarity. Different mobile phases were tested to control the degree of the ionization and good performances were obtained for methanol/water with 5 mM ammonium acetate. MRM experiments were optimized for each aflatoxin in order to generate sensitive transitions. Linearity was demonstrated for the aflatoxins in the range 0.225–1.25 μg/L. Limits of detection (LOD) (0.11 and 0.36 μg/Kg) and limits of quantification (LOQ) (0.36–1.19 μg/Kg) of the aflatoxins are below the maximum permitted levels set by the European Union (EU). Aflatoxins have acceptable recoveries using QuEChERS method in the acceptable range of 50–120% for levels below 1 μg/Kg. Satisfactory recoveries were also obtained in the acceptable range of 70–110% for levels between 1 and 10 μg/Kg except for AFB2. Relative standard deviation (RSD) of recoveries for the intra-day precision and inter-day precision were below 11 %. Selectivity of the method was tested and no spectral interferences were observed in the appropriate retention times. The main advantage of the proposed method is its ease of use and requires a smaller solvent consumption that reduces the time and cost of the analysis.

The pros and cons of using biocontrol by competitive exclusion as a means for reducing aflatoxin in maize in Africa

Aflatoxin in maize remains a major problem in Africa. Biocontrol by competitive exclusion is one approach for reducing preharvest aflatoxin. This paper describes the methods used for preparing and disseminating biocontrol substrate in maize fields, followed by a discussion of the merits of, and problems associated with, the practical use of biocontrol for reducing aflatoxin in maize in Africa. The weight of evidence indicates that biocontrol is an effective process for reducing aflatoxin, but proof of claimed efficacy for smallholder farms in Africa is lacking. Indeed, an examination of sampling methodology in use in Africa indicates that proof of efficacy may be difficult or indeed impossible to obtain.

Aflatoxin in maize: a review of the early literature from "moldy-corn toxicosis" to the genetics of aflatoxin accumulation resistance.

Aflatoxin is a potent toxin produced by Aspergillus flavus Link:Fr, an opportunistic ear-rot pathogen of maize (Zea mays L. subsp. Mays). Prior to the discovery of aflatoxin, A. flavus was considered a minor pathogen and was not a priority for maize breeders or pathologists. Aflatoxin was discovered in England in 1961 following an epidemic in poultry. By the early 1970s, surveys of agricultural commodities in the USA found that maize produced in the Southeast was especially vulnerable to aflatoxin contamination. Aflatoxin contamination was initially treated as a post-harvest issue, but pre-harvest contamination was proven by 1975. Pre-harvest contamination meant that genetically based host-plant resistance was a possible solution. The potential magnitude of the problem became apparent in 1977 when the southeastern US maize crop suffered epidemic aflatoxin contamination. The first experiment demonstrating the heritability of host-plant resistance to aflatoxin accumulation was published in 1978. These events combined to make breeding for reduced aflatoxin contamination both a high priority and a rational breeding objective. This review surveys the early scientific literature in order to place research on the genetics of aflatoxin accumulation in maize into historical context. It tells the story of how multi-disciplinary research began with veterinary diseases of unknown etiology and resulted in host-plant resistance to a previously minor plant pathogen becoming a central public sector breeding objective.

A systematic approach to monitoring high preharvest aflatoxin levels in maize and peanuts in Africa and Asia

Aflatoxin in maize and peanuts remains a critical problem in much of Africa and Asia. Many countries in these regions lack a systematic preharvest approach for providing government agencies with warnings of a potential threat to human and animal health resulting from excessive levels of aflatoxin in crops at harvest. This paper sets out an approach to such a system. It is based on the establishment of a surveillance system in each community to monitor aflatoxin contamination resulting from drought stress before harvest and advise on remedial actions. The system should be under the control of a central government coordinator. If severe drought stress occurs, the coordinator would arrange for samples of the affected crop to be provided to a central aflatoxin laboratory established and controlled by the relevant government department. Assays from the central laboratory would be sent via the central coordinator to a government scientific advisory body, which would recommend appropriate remedial action to be taken at government level.

Occurrence and Identification of Aspergillus Section Flavi in the Context of the Emergence of Aflatoxins in French Maize.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus section Flavi during their development, particularly in maize. It is widely accepted that AFB1 is a major contaminant in regions where hot climate conditions favor the development of aflatoxigenic species. Global warming could lead to the appearance of AFs in maize produced in Europe. This was the case in 2015, in France, when the exceptionally hot and dry climatic conditions were favorable for AF production. Our survey revealed AF contamination of 6% (n = 114) of maize field samples and of 15% (n = 81) of maize silo samples analyzed. To understand the origin of the contamination, we characterized the mycoflora in contaminated samples and in samples produced in the same geographic and climatic conditions but with no AFs. A special focus was placed on Aspergillus section Flavi. A total of 67 strains of Aspergillus section Flavi were isolated from the samples. As expected, the strains were observed in all AF+ samples and, remarkably, also in almost 40% of AF− samples, demonstrating the presence of these potent toxin producers in fields in France. A. flavus was the most frequent species of the section Flavi (69% of the strains). But surprisingly, A. parasiticus was also a frequent contaminant (28% of the strains), mostly isolated from AF+ samples. This finding is in agreement with the presence of AFG in most of those samples.

Moisture content, insect pest infestation and mycotoxin levels of maize in markets in the northern region of Ghana

Reliable quantitative data on maize post-harvest losses and factors that cause them in northern Ghana are limited. In this study we assessed maize at six markets in the Northern Region of Ghana, in and around Tamale, during the harvest and storage period of October 2015–June 2016. Across all the markets and sampling periods grain temperature was 32.6 ± 0.2 °C and equilibrium moisture content (EMC) was 9.5 ± 0.2%. EMC tended to decrease to a low in January and February and then increased again, while mean maize temperature was above 30 °C in all months. The primary stored product insects collected from the samples were Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), Sitophilus spp., Rhyzopertha dominica (Fauvel), and Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens). Using all the market and sampling month data, there was a significant correlation between EMC and total number of insects recovered, but not between total number of insects and temperature. The average percentage of insect-damaged kernels (IDK) in the maize sampled across all the markets and sampling periods was 2.7 ± 0.2%, with a range between 0 and 21.4%. Using all the market and sampling month data, levels of insect damage tended to be positively correlated with maize moisture, but not temperature, and levels of insect damage increased with number of stored product insects recovered. The action threshold for aflatoxin in maize in Ghana is 15 ppb, but overall mean aflatoxin level was 19.8 ± 1.5 ppb and aflatoxin levels ranged from 0.3 to 132.2 ppb, with 53% of the samples having levels above 15 ppb. The mean fumonisin level was 1.2 ± 0.0 ppm, which is below the 4.0 ppm action threshold for Ghana. Our results show that aflatoxin levels were high in the market maize in Northern Region of Ghana and insects were prevalent, even though grain moisture tended to be relatively low, especially compared to the Middle Belt of Ghana.

Smallholder farmers’ perceptions of aflatoxins in maize in kamuli district, Uganda: Presentation

Smallholder farmers’ perceptions of aflatoxins in maize in kamuli district, Uganda: Presentation

Perennial and seasonal contamination of maize by aflatoxins in eastern Kenya

BackgroundAflatoxin contamination of grain is a major constraint to sustained quality cereal production. The causative fungi, Aspergillus species infect crops in the field and continue to do so post-harvest where they produce toxins in store. The current study aimed at establishing seasonal variation in levels and types of aflatoxins in maize from the Eastern region of Kenya- the hot-spot for aflatoxicosis. Maize kernels were collected from farmers’ households in May and December 2013 -2 months after long rain and short rain season respectively. The total aflatoxins were quantified using Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), while the toxin composition was determined using Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) and confirmed using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).ResultsGenerally, grain harvested after the long rains (May) had significantly (p = 0.019) lower aflatoxin levels and variation (5.68 ± 6.31 ppb, 100% Aflatoxin B1) than that of short rains (10.77 ± 10.14 ppb, 72% AFB1). Additionally, from the long and short rain seasons, the samples exceeding regulatory allowed limit (10 ppb) were 16 and 44% respectively.ConclusionIn Eastern Kenya, consumption of maize harvested in the long rain season presents a recurrent risk of exposure to low levels of AFB1; while consumption of maize harvested after the short rain season presents a risk of seasonal exposure to high levels and mixed type of toxins However, this long term risk of exposure to aflatoxins is poorly documented hence these findings necessitate mitigation measures because AFB1– is a potent class 1 mutagenic toxin likely to cause liver cancer.

Aflatoxins in maize harvested in the Republic of Serbia over the period 2012–2016

ABSTRACTAflatoxins (AFs) are one of the most frequent contaminants in maize. The Republic of Serbia represents a leader in terms of maize production and exports in Europe. In recent years, Serbia faced climate changes. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to examine AF occurrence in 3000 maize samples collected during 2012–2016. In maize samples from 2012, 2013, 2015, and 2016, AFs were detected in 72.3%, 24.7%, 36.7%, and 5.0% of the samples, in concentration ranges of 1.0–111.2, 1.2–65.2, 1.1–76.2, and 1.3–6.9 µg kg−1, respectively. Contrary to this, in maize samples from 2014, no AFs were detected. Analysis of weather conditions indicates that 2012 was characterised by extreme drought conditions, 2013 and 2015 by lack of precipitation and high air temperatures, 2014 as the rainiest year in these years, while 2016 had moderate weather conditions.

Fate of mycotoxins and related fungi in the anaerobic digestion process

In this study, the possibility to manage maize contaminated with aflatoxins and fumonisins for the production of biogas was considered. This is a priority in the climate change scenario that is expected to increase the occurrence of aflatoxins in maize. The results clearly underline how the anaerobic digestion process used in biogas plants is able to reduce aflatoxin contamination, mainly when highly contaminated maize is used for feeding the biodigestors without affecting the efficiency of methane production. In particular, the higher aflatoxin contamination is, the higher is mycotoxin reduction during biodigestion, with reductions up to 95% in digestate. The co-occurring mycotoxins, fumonisins, were also reduced by around 15%. The vitality of mycotoxin producing fungi was also significantly reduced. Biogas production is therefore suggested as a good alternative use for uncompliant maize.

Effective chemical management for prevention of aflatoxins in maize

The presence of aflatoxins in maize grain has been an increasing problem in the Mediterranean area, possibly due to climate change such as increased temperatures and extended drought periods. It is therefore important to prevent the growth of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus species in the field. There are no fungicides registered for control A. flavus in maize, so this study investigated the efficacy of azoxystrobin, boscalid, cyprodinil, fludioxonil and cyprodinil + fludioxonil to reduce A. flavus growth, sporulation and aflatoxin production in in vitro , and in maize field studies. Based on in vitro inhibition of mycelial growth, the most effective fungicides were cyprodinil (EC 50 0.5 μg mL -1 . Further evaluation of the fungicides on maize seeds infected with A. flavus demonstrated that all the fungicides reduced conidium production by 76 to 94%, and reduced aflatoxin contamination. In a 2-year field study, application of cyprodinil + fludioxonil reduced A. flavus ear rot severity by 40%, and was the most effective formulation for reducing aflatoxin contamination, by 83%. The other four single ingredient fungicides also decreased aflatoxin production on maize kernels (fludioxonil by 80%, cyprodinil by 75%, boscalid by 74% and azoxystrobin by 67%). Field data from this study provide farmers with a new effective chemical approach to control A. flavus and aflatoxin production in maize within an integrated strategy for management of aflatoxins in maize.

Characterization and competitive ability of non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus isolated from the maize agro-ecosystem in Argentina as potential aflatoxin biocontrol agents

Aspergillus flavus is an opportunistic pathogen and may produce aflatoxins in maize, one of the most important crops in Argentina. A promising strategy to reduce aflatoxin accumulation is the biological control based on competitive exclusion. In order to select potential biocontrol agents among isolates from the maize growing region in Argentina, a total of 512 A. flavus strains were isolated from maize kernels and soil samples. Thirty-six per cent of the isolates from maize kernels did not produce detectable levels of aflatoxins, while 73% of the isolates from soil were characterized as non-aflatoxin producers. Forty percent and 49% of the isolates from maize kernels and soil samples, respectively, were not producers of cyclopiazonic acid (CPA). Sclerotia morphology was evaluated using Czapek Dox media. Eighty-six per cent of the isolates from maize kernels and 85% of the isolates from soil samples were L sclerotia morphotype (average diameter > 400 μm). The remaining isolates did not produce sclerotia. All isolates had MAT 1-1 idiomorph. The competitive ability of 9 non aflatoxigenic strains, 4 CPA(+) and 5 CPA(−), was evaluated in co-inoculations of maize kernels with an aflatoxigenic strain. All evaluated strains significantly (p < 0.05) reduced aflatoxin contamination in maize kernels. The aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) reduction ranged from 6 to 60%. The strain A. flavus ARG5/30 isolated from maize kernels would be a good candidate as a potential biocontrol agent to be used in maize, since it was characterized as neither aflatoxin nor CPA producer, morphotype L, MAT 1-1 idiomorph, and reduced AFB1 content in maize kernels by 59%. This study showed the competitive ability of potential aflatoxin biocontrol agents to be evaluated under field trials in a maize agro-ecosystem in Argentina.

Cyclopiazonic acid: 50th anniversary of its discovery

In 1968, the mycotoxin cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) was first discovered and characterised as a chemical substance. Within the following five decades, much has been learned from the results of CPA research. CPA is produced by several Penicillium species (P. griseofulvum, P. camemberti, P. commune, P. dipodomyicola) and Aspergillus species (A. flavus, A. oryzae and A. tamarii). It is widespread on naturally contaminated agricultural raw materials. CPA has been reported to occur in food commodities (e.g. oilseeds, nuts, cereals, dried figs, milk, cheese and meat products) and to possess toxicological significance. CPA is also frequently detected in peanuts and maize; the presence of CPA and aflatoxins in maize and peanuts contaminated with A. flavus suggests that synergism may occur. CPA is toxic to several animal species, such as rats, pigs, guinea pigs, poultry and dogs. After ingesting CPA-contaminated feeds, test animals display severe gastrointestinal upsets and neurological disorders. Organs affected include the liver, kidney, heart, and digestive tract, which show degenerative changes and necrosis. Biologically, CPA is a specific inhibitor of sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase. Data from toxicological evaluation of aflatoxins and CPA in broiler chickens demonstrate that both aflatoxins and CPA alone and the aflatoxin-CPA combination can adversely affect broiler health. The effects of aflatoxins and CPA combination were additive in most cases.