Affordable Drinking Water Research Articles

Water neutrality: Concept, challenges, policies, and recommendations

Agriculture, urbanisation, and industrial growth have significantly increased water demand, leading to water pollution, necessitating the protection of rivers, wetlands, and ecosystems. Hence, a strategy is needed that is aligned with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, which includes ensuring safe and affordable drinking water (SDG 6.1), implementing integrated water resources management (SDG 6.5), and protecting and restoring water-related ecosystems (SDG 6.6). This review article introduces the concept of water neutrality (WN), a planning approach for new urban developments aimed at minimising impacts on water security. The peer-reviewed articles and governmental reports published between 2014 and 2024 provide an overview of the current water situation. It also explores the potential benefits of WN, evaluates existing policies and case studies, and offers actionable recommendations. The study reveals that implementing water-related policies often faces challenges, such as political commitment, insufficient funding, and weak monitoring systems, particularly in developing countries. In India, water policies primarily focus on irrigation, drinking water supply, and pollution control. However, these policies struggle due to weak enforcement and conflicting stakeholder interests. The study recommends significant policy reforms and the adoption of new approaches to achieve WN, which promote integrated water resource management, strengthen governance, pricing mechanisms, advanced pollution control technologies, climate-resilient infrastructure, and public awareness, all while aligning with SDG 6. Innovative solutions, such as smart irrigation systems and water recycling programs, offer promising paths to address water scarcity. Additionally, international collaborations can further support these goals. Integrating WN into SDG 6 has the potential to significantly enhance global water security and sustainability.

PENGARUH DISIPLIN KERJA DAN LINGKUNGAN KERJA TERHADAP KINERJA PADA KARYAWAN TETAP PERUMDA AIR MINUM TIRTA BALURAN KABUPATEN SITUBONDO DENGAN ETOS KERJA SEBAGAI VARIABEL MODERATING

Regional Public Company (Perumda) of Air Minum Tirta Baluran Situbondo Regency is a regional drinking water company committed to providing clean, healthy and affordable drinking water for the people of Situbondo Regency, East Java. This study aimed to analyze and test the effect of work discipline and work environment on performance in permanent employees of Regional Public Company (Perumda) of Air Minum Tirta Baluran Situbondo Regency with work ethic as a moderating variable. The population in this study were permanent employees of the Regional Public Company (Perumda) of Air Minum Tirta Baluran Situbondo Regency. Sampling technique using a saturated sampling technique. This study's data analysis and hypothesis testing used the Structural Equation Model-Partial Least Square (PLS-SEM). The results of hypothesis testing using the Smart PLS 3.0 application show that work discipline has a significant positive effect on performance, work environment has a considerable positive impact on performance, work ethic has a negative but insignificant effect on moderating the relationship between work discipline variables on performance, work ethic has a positive but insignificant effect on moderating the relationship between work environment variables on performance.

Effectiveness and efficiency of urban water access in the Democratic Republic of Congo: A panel directional approach

In the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) of the United Nations, countries are committed to achieving universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all. The Democratic Republic of Congo is a paradox as it owns the second-largest basin in the world while more than half of the population has no access to basic drinking water. This fact is our starting point to conduct a performance evaluation exercise of the 11 provinces from 2008 to 2019. Our approach has five distinguished features: we take account of population trends; we use a tailored and complete database of urban centres; we define and decompose flexible indicators, and we use a non-parametric estimation method. Our results show that there is inefficiency and ineffectiveness in urban water access. Overall, larger efficiency–effectiveness differences are over time observed mostly due to a lack of technological change and a resource constraint. We also highlight the role of public policies.

Tailored approaches of data collection for improved water system management in resource constrained contexts: lessons from Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Access to water has improved globally; however, nearly 800 million people continue to lack access, particularly in resource constrained contexts. Current efforts are not on track to meet the Sustainable Development Goals aim of safe and affordable drinking water for all. Innovative and contextualized solutions are required. This article describes a university–government collaboration in Ethiopia that addressed key data limitations, without which equity-based decision-making was not possible. These efficient and cost-effective ways for obtaining and managing data support improved decision-making, and also identified avenues for improving water system governance through policy shifts and citizen participation.

Water infrastructure sustainability challenge in Nigeria: A detailed examination of infrastructure failures and potential solutions

ABSTRACT Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 – universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water – is a critical global challenge. This study contributes to this aim by analyzing the functionality and sustainability of rural water boreholes in Nigeria. It employs GIS mapping, Spearman's rho correlation analysis, and interviews across 1,696 communities to investigate borehole failure dynamics, the impact of multidimensional poverty index (MPI) on water access, technical failure causes, and the influence of ownership on functionality. Findings show that while 49.8% of communities lack improved water sources, 25.5 benefit from functional boreholes, and 24.5 grapple with failures. This study reveals a complex relationship between MPI and water access, with community ownership associated with better functionality. Consequently, the study proposes holistic strategies, emphasizing community mapping and smart infrastructure, to enhance water system sustainability. Although the study is centered in Nigeria, its insights are applicable to regions with similar socio-economic conditions, contributing to the global pursuit of sustainable water access in alignment with SDG 6.1.

Making a vicious cycle virtuous: A research and policy agenda for advancing the water security of unregulated users in the Southwestern U.S.

AbstractIn the United States, most residents receive water from centralized utilities regulated under the federal Safe Drinking Water Act. Yet, a sizable portion of U.S. residents satisfy their household water needs through decentralized means, including domestic wells, very small water systems, and hauled water. These federally unregulated water users are among the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, particularly in aridifying regions like the Southwest. They are, however, inconsistently monitored and regulated at the Tribal, federal, state, and local levels. Compared to regulated users, very few programs exist to assist this population in securing and maintaining safe, affordable drinking water access. This neglect creates a vicious cycle whereby their water security needs remain both poorly understood and inadequately addressed. We review available data sources, regulations, assistance programs, and published studies relevant to unregulated water users across the Southwestern U.S. to illustrate this injurious feedback loop. We then propose four key areas for intervention to transform this vicious cycle into a virtuous one. Drawing on new insights from the emerging literature on modular, adaptive, and decentralized (MAD) water infrastructure, we highlight opportunities for investment and innovation to support decentralized service alongside existing investments in centralized infrastructure, and the critical need to attend to justice in the design and implementation of such policies.This article is categorized under: Science of Water > Water and Environmental Change Human Water > Water Governance Human Water > Rights to Water

Optimizing energy efficiency in brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO): A comprehensive study on prioritizing critical operating parameters for specific energy consumption minimization

Reverse osmosis (RO) systems offer a viable solution for treating brackish water (BW), a common but underutilized water resource. However, the energy-intensive nature of brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO) systems poses affordability challenges to water supply, necessitating a focus on minimizing their energy consumption to support SDG6's goal of providing safe and affordable drinking water for all. This study addresses the critical need to minimize the specific energy consumption (SEC) of a typical BWRO system, defined as the energy consumed per unit of water recovered, mathematically and experimentally. Empirical models were developed proving there is a global minimum SEC while adjusting the operating conditions. Furthermore, we identified the key operating factors influencing SEC and their priority levels, along with their interactive effects. Notably, no prior study has discussed the significance and interaction of these operating factors (e.g., feed water salinity, temperature, pressure, flowrate and membrane permeability) on SEC of a BWRO system. Employing a full factorial experimental design with mixed levels of operating parameters, the study developed regression models that elucidate the mechanistic interaction between these parameters and system performance. Moreover, the models were validated experimentally, with a new dataset demonstrating their accuracy and reliability. ANOVA statistical analysis identified feed salinity, pressure, flow rate, feed flow rate×pressure, salinity×pressure, and temperature as influential operating parameters in reducing SEC, in descending order of importance. Operating within the determined optimum range resulted in a 36 % decrease in SEC and a more than fourfold increase in water recovery. The study's systematic approach and findings can be extrapolated to optimize the performance of other desalination technologies and diverse feed water types, contributing significantly to global water sustainability efforts.

Fiscal institutions and racial equity: Determining the price of water

AbstractMunicipal water utilities across the United States establish their own rate structures to cover operations, maintenance, depreciation, and outstanding debt repayment. Yet, little is known about how rates are determined to ensure equity and/or affordability. To identify sources of variation in residential drinking water rates, we examine municipalities in northeastern Illinois, 2015–2019. Controlling for water utility characteristics, billing structures, financial management, service quality, and demographic/socioeconomic factors, we find no statistically significant correlations between water rates and median household income or race when nonrevenue water from leaking infrastructure is considered, revealing relative racial equity in water pricing within these communities. A larger water distribution network, more water included in the base charge, and a greater number of months in the billing cycle are all associated with lower rates. Purchasing water through an individual or cooperative agreement, a greater proportion of nonrevenue water from leaking infrastructure, a higher minimum monthly base charge, and more revenue debt outstanding (while controlling for nonrevenue water) are all associated with higher rates. We also find a positive correlation between municipal sewer rates and drinking water rates that supports findings from prior research. Overall, our research aids in the development of public policy that ensures all households have access to affordable and safe drinking water to promote water equity and public health.

TAXATION OF CENTRALISED DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SERVICES WITH VALUE-ADDED TAX

The scientific article is devoted to the issue of reducing the tax burden on such a socially important service as a centralised drinking water supply. The study has determined that the service of centralised drinking water supply is an essential component on the way to achieving universal and equal access to safe and affordable drinking water for everyone in Ukraine. The research shows that the legal form of the utility company as a service provider is the most common for providing water supply services. This form best allows local self-government bodies to conduct their tasks and obligations in the drinking water supply. The study revealed the main features of the water supply service. We established that the service has great social significance and that its main task is not to make a profit but to provide consumers with quality drinking water in sufficient quantity and at an acceptable cost level. Despite its significant social value, the drinking water supply services are subject to value-added tax at the usual rate of 20%. The study found that the drinking water supply services generate significant added value, which results in service providers paying substantial amounts of value-added tax to the state budget. We concluded that such a situation does not correspond with the spirit of providing the population with drinking water and is unacceptable for a heavily subsidised service with many chronic problems, including high levels of deterioration of water supply infrastructure and low coverage of rural areas with centralised water supply. Further, we carried out an analysis of the legislation of the European Union regarding the taxation of water supply services with value-added tax. We determined that most countries of the European Union use the practice of applying a reduced value-added tax rate for the taxation of water supply services. The obtained results justify the further necessity to study the issue of making changes to the tax legislation of Ukraine to apply a reduced value-added tax rate or complete exemption from taxation of the value-added tax for centralised drinking water supply services. Keywords: value-added tax, drinking water supply, utility company, tariff, cost price, reduced rate.

Fulfilling Domestic Water Demand in Semiarid Regions of North Karnataka: Challenges and Way Forward

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development includes Goal 6 (SDG 6): ‘Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’. SDG target 6.1 aims to achieve by 2030 ‘universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all’. The Government of India has also launched the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) to provide potable tap water to every rural household by 2024. In this context, this article explains the findings of a study to assess the domestic water demand and the availability of water in seven villages in the Ballari and Raichur districts in North Karnataka. This study indicates that groundwater is predominantly used for domestic purposes in these districts due to the lack of adequate and reliable surface water. Only 14% of households in the study area receive adequate water as per the JJM norms and this water stress is projected to worsen due to the increasing supply–demand mismatch in the future. The authors recommend the implementation of the revised configuration of the Krishna (Almatti)–Pennar river interlinking project by 2030 since this alignment is optimised to reduce project-related deforestation, people displacement, project duration and costs. This is critical for the sustainable development of North Karnataka.

Co-defining WASH (In)Security challenges among people experiencing homelessness. A qualitative study on the Human Right to Water and Sanitation from Bonn, Germany

IntroductionAccess to safe and affordable drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) for all is needed to safeguard human health, high on societal and political agendas. According to official estimates, populations in high-income countries (HICs) are well served. Vulnerable communities at the margins of rich societies, including people experiencing homelessness, however, are often underserved and overlooked. For them, safe WASH is often a dream rather than reality. To date, no study has been conducted in Germany – one of the countries most affected in Europe. MethodsWe chose a qualitative mixed-method approach to understand WASH (in)security challenges that people experiencing homelessness are facing. Data were collected in Bonn, Germany, from 25 people experiencing homelessness (in-depth interviews, arts-based workshops, group discussions), their service providers (social workers), and (un)available public infrastructure (inspections), in 2023. Data were analyzed following the dimensions of the Human Right to Water and Sanitation (HRTWS): availability; accessibility; affordability; acceptability; quality and safety. ResultsPeople experiencing homelessness largely lack available, accessible, affordable, acceptable and safe WASH. Open urination and defecation are often the only alternative, resulting in substantial health risks and diseases. Women face particular challenges, especially while menstruating. Extreme weather events complicate existing WASH insecurity further, creating additional hardships for unhoused people and their service providers. The missed realization of the HRTWS has far-reaching consequences, making it harder to transition out of homelessness. ConclusionsMuch remains to be done to serve unhoused people in HICs better with WASH. Their experiences shed light on the underlying complexities, and the implications of different often interconnected challenges, including instability, mobility, preexisting diseases, mental health conditions and substance use disorder. Different insecurities exist among different sub-groups (e.g. women, people with limited mobility). They are valuable key informants for targeted health messaging and interventions.

Benefits, costs and enabling conditions to achieve ‘water for all’ in rural and remote Australia

Australia will not meet Sustainable Development Goal target 6.1, to “achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all” by 2030, unless water service provision is improved to hundreds of small (less than 10,000 residents), rural and remote (SRR) communities. We have estimated the national benefits of a programme to upgrade drinking water services to ensure ‘good quality’ for 395 Australian SRR communities using a stated preference survey of 3,523 participants reflective of the Australian population. Using multiple model estimates, we calculated the willingness to pay at between AU$324 and AU$847 per Australian household per year for 10 years. Aggregating across the relevant Australian population, we calculated the aggregate willingness to pay for water quality improvements at AU$1.2–4.7 billion yr−1, or AU$8.3–33.2 billion as a 10-year net present value. We further estimated the capital and operating costs to provide ‘good-quality’ drinking water in the 395 SRR communities under three scenarios; the costs range from AU$0.51 to AU$3.29 million per community and, in total, from AU$0.2 billion to AU$1.3 billion.

E. coli Levels Associated with Source Waters and Household Handling Practices of Potable Water in Peri-urban Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Cambodia has made progress towards addressing Sustainable Development Goal 6.1. “By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all”, but challenges remain in fully realizing this target. We begin this paper by reviewing current country-wide access to safe and affordable water and subsequently report on the results of water sampling done for E. coli in a peri-urban area north of Phnom Penh that was conducted between 2018 and 2020. The sampling examined E. coli levels in source waters, including rivers, ponds, a large lake/wetland, wells, rainwater harvesting systems, piped water, and bottled water. Sampling from household storage containers and in-home drinking cups also was done to assess the effects that handling practices might have on exposure to E. coli. We show that country-wide, as well as in the peri-urban study area, there has been increased access to piped water. Piped water and commercially-available bottled water (0.5–1.5 L PET bottles) had the lowest E. coli levels in our study area, although such bottled water is not an affordable alternative for many peri-urban families. Surface pond water and the Tonle Sap River contained the highest E. coli levels and would pose the greatest risk associated with direct consumption. Handling practices may impact drinking water quality, as a significant difference (p=0.2) was found in E. coli levels between samples taken from commercially-available 0.5–1.5 L PET bottles and from household cups into which the bottled water was poured. There also was a significant difference (p<0.05) in E. coli levels between piped water sampled directly from the tap and piped water stored in bulk household containers. The geometric mean concentration of E. coli in large, covered, traditional outdoor storage jars used for rainwater harvesting was nearly 10 times lower than the same type of jars that were not covered, although due to the small sample size and variability in the data, the difference was not significant (p=0.5). Despite the increasing availability of piped water service in the study area, we found a diversity of water source practices, including use of rainwater harvesting, surface water, 20 L bottled water, and wells. These source waters can be safe, but must be routinely monitored. The study illustrates the advantages of field-based testing for effective screening of E. coli in peri-urban areas.

Panacea or Placebo? The Diverse Pathways and Implications of Drinking Water System Consolidation

AbstractScholars and policy makers alike frequently promote drinking water system consolidation as a solution to the longstanding struggles of small water systems and the related consequences of service fragmentation, including vulnerability to climate change and persistent racial and economic inequalities in access to safe and affordable drinking water. Despite enthusiasm for the concept, however, our understanding of how, why, and where consolidations occur has remained stubbornly limited such that the promise of drinking water system consolidation remains theoretical at best. This study analyzes all known water system consolidations (n = 206) in the state of California over a 7‐year period (2015–2021). We find empirical support for certain theoretical claims about consolidation, including an overall reduction in the number of regulated systems, with the largest reductions occurring among particularly underperforming, climate‐vulnerable, and unrepresentative system types. Other findings, however, do not align with the literature on the subject. We find limited evidence of either water service privatization or remunicipalization trends and seemingly limited prospects for economies of scale benefits through consolidations. Moreover, roughly half of consolidations during the study period involve non‐residential water systems. Among the consolidated community water systems, systems serving higher‐resourced communities are overrepresented compared to those serving lower‐resourced communities by a margin of two‐to‐one. It is time to move beyond the blanket assumption of positive consolidation benefits toward a more nuanced understanding of the associated opportunities and limitations. Depending on their goals, policymakers may need to support more specific types of consolidation.

Water poverty in a ‘Hydro Nation’: Exploring distributional and recognitional water injustice in Scotland

Scotland is celebrated as a ‘Hydro Nation’ with abundant water resources and some of the cheapest water in the UK. However, despite claims that the UK is meeting SDG 6.1 (universal access to safe, affordable drinking water), our analysis of twenty interviews with water and fuel poverty professionals found that many households across Scotland struggle to afford and access safe water. This situation was particularly evident for rural water users and BAME (Black and Minority Ethnic) communities. We argue that the current definition of water poverty in the UK is inadequate and obscures the perpetuation of water injustice.

A comprehensive approach to simulation of cartridge filtration using CFD

Household water treatment (HWT) systems are widely used for the provision of potable water in many countries with their low-cost key to attaining universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water, Sustainable Development Goal 6.1. Removal of suspended particles (turbidity) from water sources via cartridge filters is often the first step of a HWT system, with the primary treatment increasing the efficiency of a subsequent disinfection step.Whilst the performance of cartridge filters (removal efficiency and pressure drop) can be determined experimentally in long experiments with high volumes of water, numerical simulation adds fundamental insight to the influence of fluid dynamics on particle deposition and vice versa. In this study, a novel computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model was developed to simulate the fundamental mechanisms underpinning the removal of particles within the widely used 10 in. cartridge filter, informed by and complemented with laboratory validation. The Eulerian approach was used to simulate fluid flow with the Lagrangian approach adopted for particle tracking. Rosin-Rammler distribution was implemented with respect to the particle size distribution of the diatomaceous earth particles used in the experiments. Given particles were non-spherical (disk shape), Wadell’s sphericity was included to account for the effect of particle shape on drag force. A porous domain was implemented to simulate the filter element through addition of a source term to the momentum equations, with the likelihood of particle deposition, detachment and rebound also considered.Laboratory based validation studies confirmed the novel CFD model to accurately model removal of turbidity and predict the pressure drop across the filter with Root Mean Square Percentage Error (RMSPE) of less than 3%. The simulated location of particle deposition on the filter elements closely matched images taken at several stages during filtration experiments with the model aiding understanding of pattern of particle removal along and within the porous filter structure. This novel and comprehensive modelling methodology can be utilized to simulate the filtration process at the macro-scale, permitting evaluation of new filter designs and materials for advanced filtration systems; ultimately improving HWT system performance and reducing costs to users.

Assessment of levels and health risk of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in selected sachet water packaged from groundwater resources in Ogun State, Nigeria

BackgroundSachet water is a source of affordable drinking water for low-income socioeconomic class. However, contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) could pose severe adverse health risk to consumers. ObjectiveThe present study aimed at assessing the levels and health risk of PTEs in selected sachet water samples packaged from groundwater resources in Ogun State, Nigeria. MethodsA total of 140 bags of selected sachet water brands were purchased and analysed for eleven PTEs (some of which are rarely reported in Nigeria) using inductively coupled plasma - optical emission spectrophotometer. Recovery experiment was conducted to validate the performance of the used analytical instrument. Blank samples were also run to cancel the matrix effect of the analysing reagents, and to calculate the limit of detection. PTE data were evaluated for simple descriptive and inferential statistics using SPSS for Windows. Health risk assessment was conducted for hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI) and cancer risk (CR). ResultsChromium (Cr) was the highest observed PTE in sachet water from Asero (707±1102 µg L−1), Isolu (363±374 µg L−1) and Makun-Shagamu (359±204 µg L−1) sites. The concentrations of Cr were higher than the permissible limit of the World Health Organization in 63% of the sachet water samples. Furthermore, the average contents of lead (Pb) and thallium (Tl) were observed at higher concentrations than the acceptable limits. The HQs exceeding the permissible threshold of 1.0 were observed for silver (Ag), aluminium (Al), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), Cr and Tl in 29% of the sachet water consumed by adults and children; indicating adverse health effects. The CRs of Cd and Cr at all the sampling locations, and As at few sites were higher than the acceptable limit of 1 × 10−4; suggesting possible development of cancer by the consumers. ConclusionThe high levels and health risk estimates of PTEs in the sachet water samples suggested unsafe for consumption. Periodic monitoring of PTEs in sachet water from the study area is recommended.

IMPLEMENTATION OF STATE PROGRAMS ON PROVISION OF DRINKING WATER UNDER UN PROGRAMS

The article discusses the United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals and the Sustainable Development Program to ensure safe and affordable drinking water for all and effectively address water problems. Also analyzed the state programs of the Republic of Kazakhstan adopted within the UN programs and it is results.

Microplastic pollution of drinking water in a metropolis.

This study was conducted to identify microplastics (MPs) in drinking water from various sources in İstanbul that are known to pose potential health risks. One hundred drinking water samples were analysed. Samples were filtered with a glass filter (Ø: 1.0 μm). After filtration, microscopy was used, followed by SEM-EDS and ATR-FTIR identification to characterise MPs. Two shapes (fibers and fragments) and eight polymer types of MPs (ethylene propylene, neoprene, polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polytetrafluoroethylene, vinyl chloride vinyl acetate copolymer) with sizes of 12-4892 µm (548 ± 777 µm) were detected. These MPs abundances ranged from 10 to 390 MP L-1 (134 ± 93 MP L-1). In the identification of MPs detected in filters by FTIR spectroscopy, bisphenol A, which is used in the production of various plastics and described as an important public health problem, was detected in 9.74% of MPs. Within the scope of the Sustainable Development Goals, UNEP has a specific objective of ensuring access to safe, affordable drinking water (SDG 6). With a clear statement, it should be emphasised that MPs are a significant barrier to the provision of safe drinking water, and a comprehensive plan for overcoming this barrier should be developed.

Bubbleless aerated-biological activated carbon as a superior process for drinking water treatment in rural areas

Drinking water supply in rural areas remains a substantial challenge due to complex natural, technical and economic conditions. To provide safe and affordable drinking water to all, as targeted in the UN Sustainable Development Goals (2030 Agenda), low-cost, efficient water treatment processes suitable for rural areas need to be developed. In this study, a bubbleless aeration BAC (termed ABAC) process is proposed and evaluated, involving the incorporation of a hollow fiber membrane (HFM) assembly within a slow-rate BAC filter, to provide dissolved oxygen (DO) throughout the BAC filter and an increased DOM removal efficiency. The results showed that after a 210-day period of operation, the ABAC increased the DOC removal by 54%, and decreased the disinfection byproduct formation potential (DBPFP) by 41%, compared to a comparable BAC filter without aeration (termed NBAC). The elevated DO (> 4 mg/L) not only reduced secreted extracellular polymer, but also modified the microbial community with a stronger degradation ability. The HFM-based aeration showed comparable performance to 3 mg/L pre-ozonation, and the DOC removal efficiency was four times greater than that of a conventional coagulation process. The proposed ABAC treatment, with its various advantages (e.g., high stability, avoidance of chemicals, ease of operation and maintenance), is well-suited to be integrated as a prefabricated device, for decentralized drinking water systems in rural areas.