Affinity Of Polymer Research Articles

Covalent Organic Framework-Mediated Thin-Film Composite Polyamide Membranes toward Precise Ion Sieving.

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have evinced a potential solution that promises for fast and efficient molecular separation due to the presence of orderly arranged pores and regulable pore apertures. Herein, the synthesized COF (TPB-DMTP-COF) with the pore aperture matching the pore size of the nanofiltration (NF) membrane was utilized to modulate the physicochemical characters of the polyamide (PA) membranes. It is demonstrated that COFs with superior polymer affinity and hydrophilicity not only circumvent the nonselective interfacial cavities but also improve the hydrophilicity of the resultant thin-film nanocomposite (TFN) membranes. Furthermore, the predeposited COF layer is able to slow down the diffusion rate toward the reaction boundary through hydrogen bonding, which is consistent with the results of molecular dynamic (MD) and dissipative particle dynamic (DPD) simulations. In this context, COF-modulated TFN membranes show a roughened and thickened surface with bubble-shaped structures in contrast to the nodular structure of original polyamide membranes. Combined with the introduced in-plane pores of COFs, the resultant TFN membranes display a significantly elevated water permeance of 35.7 L m2 h-1 bar-1, almost 4-fold that of unmodified polyamide membranes. Furthermore, the selectivity coefficient of Cl-/SO42- for COF-modulated TFN membranes achieves a high value of 84 mainly related to the enhanced charge density, far exceeding the traditional NF membranes. This work is considered to provide a guideline of exploring hydrophilic COFs as an interlayer for constructing highly permeable membranes with precise ion-sieving ability.

How an ACE2 mimicking epitope-MIP nanofilm recognizes template-related peptides and the receptor binding domain of SARS-CoV-2.

Here we aim to gain a mechanistic understanding of the formation of epitope-imprinted polymer nanofilms using a non-terminal peptide sequence, i.e. the peptide GFNCYFP (G485 to P491) of the SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD). This epitope is chemisorbed on the gold surface through the central cysteine 488 followed by the electrosynthesis of a ∼5 nm thick polyscopoletin film around the surface confined templates. The interaction of peptides and the parent RBD and spike protein with the imprinted polyscopoletin nanofilm was followed by electrochemical redox marker gating, surface enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy and conductive AFM. Because the use of non-terminal epitopes is especially intricate, here we characterize the binding pockets through their interaction with 5 peptides rationally derived from the template sequence, i.e. implementing central single amino acid mismatch as well as elongations and truncations at its C- and N- termini. Already a single amino acid mismatch, i.e. the central Cys488 substituted by a serine, results in ca. 15-fold lower affinity. Further truncation of the peptides to tetrapeptide (EGFN) and hexapeptide (YFPLQS) results also in a significantly lower affinity. We concluded that the affinity towards the different peptides is mainly determined by the four amino acid motif CYFP present in the sequence of the template peptide. A higher affinity than that for the peptides is found for the parent proteins RBD and spike protein, which seems to be due to out of cavity effects caused by their larger footprint on the nanofilm surface.

Tunable Supramolecular Cavities Molecularly Homogenized in Polymer Membranes for Ultraefficient Precombustion CO2 Capture (Adv. Mater. 3/2022)

Molecular Sieves In article number 2105156, Tai-Shung Chung and co-workers show how soluble organic macrocyclic cavitands (OMCs) with interactive affinity for polymers can be utilized to design novel nanocomposite membranes with true molecular homogeneity, unlike conventional nanoarchitectures that form heterogeneous nanofiller phases within membranes that cause performance and processability issues. By adjusting the OMC cavity size within the membranes, tunable gas-transport properties can be obtained for molecular-sieving H2/CO2 separation.

Brain‐targeted intranasal formulation of Centella asiatica: A potential strategy for treating Alzheimer’s disease

AbstractBackgroundA major drawback associated with the conventional AD therapy is the inability of drugs to cross Blood Brain Barrier (BBB). Although, many drugs show potential to dissolve amyloid protein in vitro, only few mimics this action in vivo due to hindrance by BBB. One such drug is Centella asiatica containing asiaticoside that is proven to dissolves amyloid protein in vitro but lacks in vivo effects.MethodThe study was designed to develop a nasal formulation of an herbal drug (Centella asiatica) using brain targeted polymers to bypass the BBB to enhance the penetration of Centella in the brain.The extract of C. asiatica was first encapsulated into β‐ cyclodextrin by acid‐base precipitation method. These particles were nanonised and encapsulated into thiolated eudragit (TE) by ionic gelation method. The nanoparticles were characterized by FTIR, XRD, DLS, SEM, AFM and Ex ‐ vivo permeation studies. MTT assay was performed using Human Umbilical cord Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs) mimicking Blood‐Brain‐Barrier (BBB) to establish the safety and permeability of NPs. Further, the targeting efficacy was confirmed by molecular docking studies against receptors Sphingosine‐1‐Phosphate receptor 1 and Low‐density lipoprotein Receptor‐related Protein associated with BBB.ResultFTIR and XRD studies confirmed encapsulation of Centella into beta cyclodextrin and TE. Nanoparticle characterization confirmed the size and stability of the particles with zeta potential of −10.43 mV and Pdi of 0.260. NPs showed no signs of nasal ciliotoxicity and had good permeation of 88.44 ± 2.65 % (Mean ± SD, n=3) at 8h across nasal mucosa. MTT assay showed that the nanocomposite had lesser toxicity and better permeability compared to free drug (IC50 of Centella – 269.1 μg/mL and IC50 of nanoformulation – 310.625 μg/mL). The affinity of polymer to the receptors associated to BBB was proved by docking studies proves the ability of polymer‐based NPs to concentrate in brain post nasal administration.ConclusionThe study successfully showed that the NPs containing Centella had better permeability across BBB that could be beneficial in treating AD when administered intranasally.

Compatible organic and natural solvent mixture of synthesising biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles

The Flory-Huggins model interaction explained the compatibility and extent of polymer dissolution in selected solvent mixtures via Hansen Solubility Parameters (HSP). Metastable zone where nucleation of NPs would start was determined by the solvent mixture – polymer – water interaction. Simulation results explained that the combination of acetone-chloroform (0.20:0.80) was better than acetone-ethyl lactate (0.40:0.60) for PCL solvation while ethyl lactate-dimethyl sulfoxide (0.60:0.40) was better for PLA solvation as compared to ethyl lactate-acetone (0.80:0.20). Nanoprecipitation with aqueous to organic volume ratio of 10 was used to prepare the biodegradable PCL nanoparticles for experimental validation. The organic phase was 1 g L−1 PCL in solvents or solvent mixtures and the antisolvent was deionized (DI) water. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) were used to examine the morphology and size of nanoparticles formed. Results showed that the acetone-chloroform with volume fraction of 0.20 to 0.80 was the best solvent mixture for PCL in producing NPs with the mean size less than 100 nm. Solvent mixture proved by numerical simulation and experimental validation, able to enhance the affinity of polymer (PCL or PLA) for water to produce nanoparticles with much smaller size.

Thiolated Chitosan-Centella asiatica Nanocomposite: A Potential Brain Targeting Strategy Through Nasal Route.

The major challenge associated with the treatment of neurological disorders is the inefficiency of drugs to enter the Central Nervous System (CNS). Polymer-drug conjugates are now being tailored to overcome this hindrance associated with conventional drugs. The study aimed at developing polymer hybrid nasal nanocomposite for enhanced delivery of Centella to the CNS. Thiolated chitosan was complexed with Centella to form a composite using EDAC hydrochloride. The composite was characterized by FTIR, XRD, NMR, and MS. Further, this composite was converted into a nanoformulation by the ionic-gelation method, characterized, and subjected to ex vivo permeation studies. Additionally, MTT assay was performed using Human Uumbilical cord Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs) mimicking Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) to establish the safety of nanocomposite. The targeting efficacy was predicted by molecular docking studies against receptors associated with BBB. The FTIR, XRD, NMR, and MS studies confirmed the chemical conjugation of thiolated chitosan with Centella. Nanocomposite characterization through SEM, AFM, and DLS confirmed the size and stability of the developed nanocomposite having a zeta potential of - 14.5mV and PDI of 0.260. The nanocomposite showed no signs of nasal ciliotoxicity and good permeation of 89.44 ± 1.75% (mean ± SD, n = 3) at 8h across the nasal mucosa. MTT assay showed that the nanocomposite had lesser toxicity compared to the free drug (IC50 of Centella-269.1μg/mL and IC50 of CTC nanocomposite-485.375μg/mL). The affinity of polymer to the BBB receptors as proved by docking studies suggests the ability of polymer-based nanocomposite to concentrate in the brain post nasal administration.

Achieving Efficient n-Doping of Conjugated Polymers by Molecular Dopants.

ConspectusMolecular doping is one of the most central propositions in the field of organic electronics. Unlike classical inorganic semiconductors doped by atomic substitution, organic conjugated materials react with molecular dopants, and then intermolecular charge transfer is involved within. Therefore, the complex noncovalent interactions between two components often cause the molecular dopant to destroy the orderly stacking of the host organic materials and reduce the original properties of the material, such as carrier mobility, which here we call the "doping dilemma." Recently, many studies focus on improving p-doping efficiency and electrical conductivity of doped conjugated polymers; however, the development of n-type molecular doping currently lags far behind that of its p-counterpart. It is well-known that both efficient p- and n-type molecular doping are indispensable in various organic electronic devices, including light-emitting diodes, photovoltaics, field-effect transistors, and thermoelectrics. It is thus an urgent requirement to achieve efficient n-doping in conjugated polymers.In this Account, we give a brief overview of our efforts to improve the n-doping efficiency in conjugated polymers with several strategies from the aspects of the polymer/dopant molecular design and the exploration of the n-type molecular doping mechanism and charge transport mechanism in n-doped organic materials. For the conjugated polymer engineering, we first demonstrate that increasing the electron affinity of the host polymer through halogen substitution can boost the n-doping efficiency. Still, the rigid coplanar backbones of conjugated polymers play a crucial role in the polaron delocalization and final electrical performance. In addition, we emphasize the importance of morphology control in the doped polymers to address the "doping dilemma." For n-dopants designing, we summarize some basic guidelines from molecular sizes and shapes, the interaction between dopants (or dopant cations) and polymers, and the effects of dopants on morphology to design high-efficacy n-type molecular dopants. We propose that the polymers and the dopants need to be treated as a whole system; while enhancing the ionization efficiency, more attention should be paid to the carrierization (free-carrier generation) efficiency of these binary systems. In the end, we adopt the n-type polymer thermoelectric material as an example to discuss the grand challenges encountered in practical applications of n-doped conjugated polymers. The air stability and micrometer-thick thermo-leg processing of n-doped polymers are highlighted for thermoelectric applications. It is our hope that this Account showcases a blueprint for rational approaches and a deep understanding toward the design and development of efficient n-doping in conjugated polymers, bringing n-doped organic materials into the next era.

A rapid quantitation of cell attachment and spreading based on digital image analysis: Application for cell affinity and compatibility assessment of synthetic polymers

Accurate and rapid quantitation of cell attachment, spreading, and growth on a polymer thin film coated glass cover slide was developed by analyzing the digital images of cells stained with dyes. A biodegradable block copolymer poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(l-lactide-co-2-methyl-2-carboxyl-propylene carbonate) [PEG-b-P(LA-co-MCC)] was synthesized as model polymer with poly(L-lactic acid) [PLLA] as a control polymer. Only a small quantity of polymer (~5 mg) was needed in this method through dissolving in a solvent and casting on cover slides which were previously modified with dimethyl dichlorosilane (DMDC). Then it was seeded with cells and taken pictures with a digital camera under an optical microscope and analyzed with ImageJ software. Cell number and a series of morphological data were obtained, including cell area, circularity, perimeter and Feret's diameter, etc. The quantitative analysis results indicated that cells preferred to attach and spread on the surface of the copolymer PEG-b-P(LA-co-MCC) compared to PLLA during 24 h of cell culture. This efficient procedure provides a series of convincing statistical data to evaluate the direct interaction between cells and polymers with only an optical microscope, a digital camera and ImageJ software. It's a rapid, economic way for assessing cell affinity and compatibility of novel synthetic polymers by cell culture in vitro.

Conformational Switch of Arylopeptide: Helix-Helix Transition Based on Side Chain Solvation.

Controlling the structural transition between well-defined architectures found in living system is essential in polymer chemistry as well as material science. Herein, the reversible conformational switch of a non-natural polypeptide with an aromatic ring (2,6-naphthalene spacer) on its peptide backbone, referred to as an arylopeptide, between two distinct well-defined helical structures (extended 31 -helix and contracted 41 -helix) using side chain solvation is demonstrated. The folding selectivity of the arylopeptide and found that the affinity between the solvent and side chains is an essential factor for determining the global structure is investigated. A thermoresponsive arylopeptide bearing oligoether groups (─(CH2 CH2 O)9 CH3 )) on the side chain is designed, which exhibited unique lower critical solution temperature behavior and converted from the 31 to the 41 -helix depending on the temperature. Furthermore, the solvent affinity of the entire polymer by combining substituents (─(CH2 CH2 O)3 CH3 and ─C12 H25 ) with different properties on the side chains to achieve a spring-like expansion-contraction system that allows interconversion between 31 - and 41 -helices is adjusted.

MXene-Based Nanocomposite Sensors.

The excellent conductivity and versatile surface chemistry of MXenes render these nanomaterials attractive for sensor applications. This mini-review puts recent advances in MXene-based sensors into perspective and provides prospects for the area. It describes the attractive properties and the working principles of MXene-based sensors fabricated from a MXene/polymer nanocomposite or a pristine MXene. The importance of surface modification of MXenes to improve their affinity for polymers and to develop self-healing and durable sensors is delineated. Several novel sensor fabrication methods and their challenges are discussed. Emerging applications of MXene-based sensors including moisture, motion, gas, and humidity detection as well as pressure distribution mapping are critically reviewed. Potential applications of MXene-based sensors in the food industry to monitor food materials and production plants are highlighted.

Fabrication and characterizations of hybrid membrane containing tannin-modified metal-organic framework for water treatment

In the past decade, many researchers have focused on incorporating metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) as filler for hybrid membrane fabrication, predominantly due to their excellent polymer affinity, huge porosity, and tunable pore size. The hybrid membrane can significantly improve overall membrane properties. However, MOF/polymer membranes usually suffer low flux due to the hydrophobic nature of MOF's organic linker. Herein, this study modified MIL-100 an iron-based MOF with tannic acid to improve its hydrophilicity and subsequently hybrid membrane was fabricated using the phase inversion technique. Vast hydroxyl group from tannic acid plays an essential role in improving the hydrophilicity of MOF. Subsequently, improved the hydrophilicity of the prepared membrane. The Tannin-MOF/PES membrane experienced a high pure water flux of 357.9 L/m2h, which is 1.9 times higher than the unmodified PES membrane.

SERS based sensor for mycotoxins detection: Challenges and improvements

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has become a growing ultrasensitive analytical technique to quantify toxic molecules in foodstuffs. Monitoring the levels of chemical contaminants not only ensures food security but also offers a guideline on the production, processing, and risk analysis of consumer’s health protection. The objective of this study was to point out the possible challenges associated with the detection of mycotoxins in foodstuffs. Herein, we have discussed briefly as to selectivity, accuracy, precision, robustness, ruggedness, non-specific adsorption (NSA), cross-reactivity (for both label-free and the target analyte capture approaches like the application of antibody, aptamer, molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP), linear polymer affinity agents and/or specific surface-modified nanomaterials) and their potential solution.

Polyimide aerogel with controlled porosity: Solvent-induced synergistic pore development during solvent exchange process

Despite intensive studies on polymer aerogels, the fabrication of polyimide aerogels mostly relies on supercritical drying; however, the development of suitable ambient or vacuum drying methods and a shortened solvent exchange process are important for industrial applications. This study highlights the effect of the solvent type used for the solvent exchange process on the porosity and pore structure of vacuum-dried polyimide aerogels. By combining two different solvents, we could achieve a much higher aerogel porosity than when using either solvent independently. This synergistic effect cannot be simply explained by the surface tension of the exchange solvent but is shown to be related to the solvent–polymer affinity, solvent-induced structural change during the solvent exchange process, and shrinkage behavior during the solvent exchange and drying processes. The pore structure and porosity are shown to be easily controllable by simply adjusting the solvent ratios. Moreover, the solvent exchange time is much shorter (~10 h) than that in previous reports on polyimide aerogels, which is highly beneficial for industrial application. The mechanical properties were highly dependent on the porosity and pore structure, and the relative permittivity could be adjusted in a wide range according to the controlled porosity. Together with high thermomechanical stability, various electronic applications are expected. Moreover, the idea proposed in this study is expected to serve as a useful guideline for the fabrication of various other polymer aerogels with efficient processability.

The effect of alginate composition on adsorption to calcium carbonate surfaces

Bacterial anchoring to limestone rocks is thought to occur by selective adsorption of biomolecules found in the extracellular matrix, such as polysaccharides. Here we study the adsorbed structure of a model matrix polysaccharide, sodium alginate, at the calcite/water interface using neutron reflection (NR). Sodium alginate was found to form highly hydrated layers extending up to 350 Å into solution at concentrations up to 2.5 ppm (the inflection point of the adsorption isotherm). The adsorption of alginate was driven by dissolution of the calcite surface through complexation of free calcium ions. This was shown using two alginates with differing ratios of sugar residues. Alginates with a higher proportion of guluronic acid (G) have a higher affinity for calcium ions and were found to cause the surface to dissolve to a greater extent and to adsorb more at the surface when compared to alginates with a higher proportion of mannuronic acid (M). Adding magnesium to the high G alginate solution reduced dissolution of the surface and the adsorbed amount. In this work, we have shown that polysaccharide adsorption to sparingly soluble calcite interfaces is closely related to polymer conformation and affinity for free calcium ions in solution.

Porous organic polymer embedded thin-film nanocomposite membranes for enhanced nanofiltration performance

Porous organic polymers have been considered promising for the design of high performing membranes, mainly because of their superior surface area, intrinsic mesoporous structure and good polymer affinity. In this study, hierarchical o-hydroxyazo porous organic polymers (o-POPs) and piperazine (PIP) monomers were incorporated into the casting solution, followed by phase inversion to prepare PIP-containing polymeric substrates. The o-POPs modified thin film nanocomposite (TFN) membranes were fabricated by interfacial polymerization (IP) with trimesoyl chloride (TMC). The incorporated o-POPs could locally enrich PIP in substrates and impede its diffusion towards the organic interface during IP reaction through hydrogen bonding and physical obstruction, leading to the formation of a crumpled membrane surface. The enhancement of surface roughness and hydrophilicity endowed the TFN membranes with a signally elevated water permeance while maintaining a comparable solute rejection. The optimal TFN membrane with the o-POP content of 0.3 wt% displayed a remarkable water permeance of 29.6 L m−2 h−1 bar−1, a high Na2SO4 rejection of 94.9%, and an efficient removal of reactive dyes (e.g., reactive black 5 and reactive orange 16, >98.2%), which makes o-POP functionalized TFN membranes competitive for NF applications in water treatment.

Bicomponent nanofibers from core–shell nozzle in gas jet spinning process

ABSTRACTThis work evaluates the use of a core–shell nozzle assembly in conjunction with gas jet spinning technique for production of bicomponent nanofibers from an immiscible polymer pair of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) with three morphological forms—interpenetrating network (IPN), core–shell, and bilobal structurers—by varying the sets of miscible solvents offering different affinity for the polymers. Such fiber structures have strong potential in drug delivery and wound dressing applications. Solutions of PVP and PVAc in respective single solvents metered through a core–shell nozzle assembly meet at the exit of the nozzle and a liquid jet is initiated upon contact with a turbulent gas jet. The gas jet stretches the liquid jet into nanofibers. The results indicate that miscible solvent pairs with low affinity for one of the polymer component yield core–shell morphology with distinct polymer interfaces, while the miscible solvent pairs with high affinity for both polymers produce IPN morphology. Also, interchanging core and shell solutions does not alter the IPN morphology. Finally, bilobal nanofiber structures result from spinning of polymer solutions in miscible solvents with low affinity for the second polymer using a nonconcentric core–shell nozzle assembly. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2020, 137, 48901.

Multiplex surface-enhanced Raman scattering detection of deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin A with a linear polymer affinity agent.

A linear, methacrylamide polymer affinity agent was explored to capture two mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA), for multiplex surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) detection. These mycotoxins are naturally occurring small molecules from fungi that can be dangerous at low concentrations. SERS detection was completed for each polymer-toxin complex at concentrations relevant to current safety regulation by the FDA: 1 ppm for DON and 5 ppb for OTA. Visibly distinguishable vibrational modes were observed in the multiplex spectra that were attributed to each mycotoxin individually, thus, not requiring any additional chemometric analysis. Density functional theory (DFT) was used to model DON and OTA to accurately label the vibrational modes in the experimental spectra as well as provide insight on the binding between both targets and the affinity agent. Fully modeled vibrations of these toxins are novel contributions due to OTA never being modeled and only a few published vibrational modes of DON. DFT guides empirical observations regarding hydrogen bonding at multiple sites of each mycotoxin target molecule through the amine groups on the polymer, confirming the capabilities of a single polymer affinity agent to facilitate multiplex detection of a class of molecules through less-specific interactions than traditional affinity agents.

Probing Peptide Sequences on Their Ability to Generate Affinity Sites in Molecularly Imprinted Polymers.

An array of 4000 defined and addressable tripeptides on a polymer-coated glass slide is used to synthesize molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) nanoparticles. This work is undertaken to systematically probe the impact of the peptide sequence on the ability to generate affinity MIPs. The polymer affinity is assessed by measuring the fluorescence of bound MIP nanoparticles at each peptide spot on the surface after washing the array to remove any low-affinity polymer. The generic composition commonly used in the preparation of MIPs against proteins seems to be equally suitable for imprinting hydrophobic and hydrophilic tripeptides. The amino acids frequently contributing to the formation of high-affinity MIPs include T, F, D, N, Y, W, and P. The amino acids that rarely contribute to the formation of high-affinity interactions with MIPs are G, V, A, L, I, and M. These observations are confirmed by computational modeling. The basic technique proposed here may be applicable in optimizing polymer compositions for the production of high-affinity MIPs or, more specifically, for the selection of appropriate amino acid sequences when peptide epitopes are used instead of whole protein imprinting.

High-throughput assessment of hemoglobin polymer in single red blood cells from sickle cell patients under controlled oxygen tension

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is caused by a variant hemoglobin molecule that polymerizes inside red blood cells (RBCs) in reduced oxygen tension. Treatment development has been slow for this typically severe disease, but there is current optimism for curative gene transfer strategies to induce expression of fetal hemoglobin or other nonsickling hemoglobin isoforms. All SCD morbidity and mortality arise directly or indirectly from polymer formation in individual RBCs. Identifying patients at highest risk of complications and treatment candidates with the greatest curative potential therefore requires determining the amount of polymer in individual RBCs under controlled oxygen. Here, we report a semiquantitative measurement of hemoglobin polymer in single RBCs as a function of oxygen. The method takes advantage of the reduced oxygen affinity of hemoglobin polymer to infer polymer content for thousands of RBCs from their overall oxygen saturation. The method enables approaches for SCD treatment development and precision medicine.

Combinatorial screening of polymer nanoparticles for their ability to recognize epitopes of AAV-neutralizing antibodies.

A library of 17 nanoparticles made of acrylate and methacrylate copolymers is prepared, characterized, and screened against six epitopes of adeno-associated viruses (AAV)-neutralizing antibodies to assess their affinity and specificity. Peptide epitopes are immobilized onto the surface of glass beads, packed in filtration microplates, and incubated with fluorescein-labelled nanoparticles. Following intense washing, the affinity of nanoparticles to immobilized epitopes is assessed by measuring the fluorescence of captured nanoparticles. The results show that polar monomers, acrylic acid in particular, have a positive impact on polymer affinity towards all peptides used in this study. The presence of hydrophobic monomers, on other hand, has a negative impact on polymer binding. The composition of peptides used in this study has no noticeable impact on the affinity of synthesized nanoparticles. The affinity of nanoparticles with the highest affinity to peptide targets does not exceed millimolar level. Overall, it is found that the synthesized library showed modest affinity but lacked specificity, which should be further "tuned," for example, by using molecular imprinting to achieve an acceptable level of affinity and specificity for practical application.