Afar Pastoralists Research Articles

Community-based cross-sectional survey of latent tuberculosis infection in Afar pastoralists, Ethiopia, using QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube and tuberculin skin test

BackgroundThere is little information concerning community-based prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) using T-cell based interferon-γ (IFN-γ) release assays (IGRAs), particularly in TB endemic settings. In this study, the prevalence of LTBI in the Afar pastoral community was assessed using QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube (QFTGIT) and tuberculin skin tests (TST).MethodsA community-based cross-sectional survey of LTBI involving 652 apparently healthy adult pastoralists was undertaken in the pastoral community of Amibara District of the Afar Region between April and June 2010.ResultsThe prevalence of LTBI was estimated as 63.7% (363/570) using QFTGIT at the cut-off point recommended by the manufacturer (≥ 0.35 IU/ml IFN-γ), while it was 74.9% (427/570) using a cut-off point ≥ 0.1 IU/ml IFN-γ. The QFTGIT-based prevalence of LTBI was not significantly associated with the gender or age of the study participants. However, the prevalence of LTBI was 31.2% (183/587) using TST at a cut-off point ≥ 10 mm of skin indurations, and it was higher in males than females (36.8% vs. 23.5%, X2 = 11.76; p < 0.001). There was poor agreement between the results of the tests (k = 0.098, 95% CI, 0.08 - 0.13). However, there was a positive trend between QFTGIT and TST positivity (X2 = 96.76, P < 0.001). Furthermore, individuals with skin indurations ≥ 10 mm were 13.6 times more likely to have positive results using QFTGIT than individuals with skin indurations of 0 mm (adjusted OR = 13.6; 95%CI, 7.5 to 24.7, p < 0.001).ConclusionsThere is currently no agreed gold standard for diagnosis of LTBI. However, the higher prevalence of LTBI detected using QFTGIT rather than TST suggests that QFTGIT could be used for epidemiological studies concerning LTBI at the community level, even in a population unreactive to TST. Further studies of adults and children will be required to assess the effects of factors such as malnutrition, non-tuberculosis mycobacterial infections, HIV and parasitic infections on the performance of QFTGIT.

Knowledge of cervical tuberculosis lymphadenitis and its treatment in pastoral communities of the Afar region, Ethiopia

BackgroundInfection with Mycobacterium bovis (Mb) predominantly causes cervical TB lymphadenitis (TBL). Raw milk is considered the main source of Mb infection and raw milk is a major food source for Afar pastoralists. The aim of this study was to assess Afar pastoralists' knowledge concerning cervical TBL and its treatment.MethodsA community-based cross-sectional survey involving 818 interviewees was conducted in two districts of the Afar Region, Ethiopia. In addition, two focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in each of the study areas, one with men and the other with women.ResultsOf the 818 interviewees [357 (43.6%) females and 461 (56.4%) males], 742 (90.7%) reported that they had knowledge of cervical TBL, mentioning that swelling(s) on the neck resulting in a lesion and scar are common symptoms. However, only 11 (1.5%) individuals mentioned that bacteria or germs are the causative agents of TBL. Three interviewees and a male discussant mentioned drinking raw milk as the cause of TBL. A considerable proportion (34.2%) of the interviewees and almost all the discussants suggested herbal medicine as an effective treatment. Male study participants were 1.82 times more likely to have overall knowledge of TBL than female study participants (adjusted OR, 1.82; 95% CI, 1.32 to 2.51, p < 0.001).ConclusionThe pastoral community members in the study areas had little biomedical knowledge of the cause, the source of infection and the transmission route of cervical TBL. Furthermore, most community members believed that herbal medicines are the most effective treatment for TBL. Therefore, TB control programs in the Afar Region require the incorporation of public health education introducing current biomedical knowledge of the disease. In addition, further studies are important to elucidate which medicinal plants are used by Afar pastoralists to treat TBL.

Mutual-Help among Afar Pastoralists of Ethiopia

Mutual-help arrangements are quite essential for rural households in developing economies but empirical evidences show different success stories. This paper discusses the existence of variability among Afar pastoralists in regards to participation in mutual-help arrangements and identifies factors contributing to those variations. The analysis is based on the data collected through a household survey constituting interviews of 180 randomly selected pastoral households and several focused group discussions. The results show that those households with better social ties are in a better position to participate in mutual-help arrangements. Moreover, mutual-help arrangements are influenced by livelihood conditions at household and community levels.

Conflicts between Afar Pastoralists and their Neighbors: Triggers and Motivations

Particularly pervasive violent conflicts in the Horn of Africa have detrimental effects on people's livelihoods there. While the intensity, causes, and repercussions of violent conflicts vary spatially and temporally, pastoral areas are currently the hotspots. This paper examines the causes and consequences of violent conflicts in Ethiopia between Afar pastoralists and two of their neighbors, the Issa and the Karrayyu. The findings are based on primary data (individual interviews, group discussions, and field observations) and secondary data (documents and publications) collected in 2005 and 2006. The results indicate that contemporary challenges such as recurrent droughts, resource appropriation, livestock raiding, proliferation of small arms, and illicit trade contribute to the perpetuation of violent conflicts. While traditional institutions manage inter-clan conflicts, their effectiveness is quite limited with regard to inter-ethnic conflicts, where the contemporary challenges in pastoral areas are too diverse and complex to be managed solely by traditional institutions. The perpetuation of violent conflicts has affected the livelihoods of pastoralists, thereby causing humanitarian crisis and limiting access to resources and opportunities.

The effect of land use on the recruitment and population structure of the important food and fodder plant, Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Poir., in northern Afar, Ethiopia

Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Poir. is a drought-tolerant evergreen woody species that is important for food security of pastoral Afar people in north-eastern Ethiopia. We examined population structure and abundance of D. glabra in the Afar rangelands, which have been subjected to considerable land-use changes. Factors determining the abundance of seedlings, shrubs and trees were analyzed using generalized linear models with land-use type, landform, aspect, elevation and soils as explanatory variables. The relative abundances of seedlings, shrubs and trees were 11%, 71% and 18%, respectively, which indicates poor recruitment. Land-use changes are a major reason for the low recruitment of seedlings, due to the clearance of land for cultivation, or increases in browsing pressure caused by pastoral sedentarization. Although the overall abundance of D. glabra was low, the ‘little disturbed’ areas had a relatively high abundance of shrubs compared to ‘moderately disturbed’, ‘disturbed’, and ‘highly disturbed’ areas. Some soil parameters were related to abundance, but there was no clear evidence that environmental variables contributed to the decline of D. glabra. In order to preserve this important species, we propose management strategies that focus on protection of certain areas in combination with planting in the home gardens of settled Afar pastoralists.

Participatory appraisal of foot and mouth disease in the Afar pastoral area, northeast Ethiopia: implications for understanding disease ecology and control strategy

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most economically important disease of livestock that still affects extensive areas of the world. This study described the use of participatory appraisal tools such as pair-wise ranking, matrix scoring and proportional piling to assess the perception of livestock keepers about the clinical signs and epidemiological features of cattle diseases with particular emphasis on FMD. Strong agreement among informant groups (W = 0.710; P = 0.000) in pair wise ranking indicated that the diseases were common problem to all the selected districts. Matrix scoring of disease indicators/signs also showed strong agreement (W = 0.504 to 0.955; P = 0.000) that implied significant current veterinary knowledge by Afar pastoralists. Age specific means of annual incidence rates estimated by proportional piling were significantly (P < 0.05) different but negatively correlated for FMD, CBPP and pasteurellosis. However, correlation was not significant for anthrax, blackleg and other important diseases. Age specific means of annual mortality was significantly (P < 0.05) but negatively correlated for FMD, CBPP, pasteurellosis and other important cattle diseases with correlation coefficients of -0.72, -0.81, -0.8 and -0.55, respectively. However, correlation (r = 0.12) was not significant for anthrax and not correlated at all for blackleg. This study indicated that pastoralists have detailed knowledge about their livestock health problems, and hence the combined use of participatory appraisal and conventional methods is essential for an ultimate disease control strategy.

Livelihood adaptation to risk: Constraints and opportunities for pastoral development in Ethiopia's Afar region

Development policies in the pastoral areas of Africa assume that pastoralists are poor. Using the Afar pastoralists of Ethiopia as the focus of research this article challenges this depiction of pastoralism by exploring pastoral livelihood goals and traditional strategies for managing risk. Investment in social institutions to minimise the risk of outright destitution, sometimes at the cost of increased poverty, and significant manipulation of local markets enable the Afar to exploit a highly uncertain and marginal environment. Improved development assistance and enhanced targeting of the truly vulnerable within pastoral societies demands an acceptance that pastoral poverty is neither uniform nor universal.

Capitalisation, Commoditisation and Obligation among Ethiopia's Afar Pastoralists

Abstract This paper on the Afar pastoralists of north-eastern Ethiopia examines their livelihood goals to understand how they view the institutions that are central to their existence. The paper examines the choices made in allocating livestock resources to accumulate different forms of capital. Using qualitative and quantitative research the paper considers the value of internal livestock exchange for accruing insurance and the impact that such value has on the commoditisation of livestock. Keywords: pastoralism, Afar, Ethiopia, livestock, capital, marketing Introduction The Afar 'triangle' lies within the three countries of Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti in the Horn of Africa. The majority of the triangle lies in Ethiopia, stretching from its southern tip in the Awash national park to the Eritrean border in the north and east. The Afar region is predominantly arid with an eleven-year average annual rainfall up to the year 2000 of 187.9mm at Dubti meteorological station (Republic of Ethiopia 2001). The Afar population was estimated at 1,106,383 people in the mid-1990s (Republic of Ethiopia Office of Population and Housing Census Commission 1996), more than 80 percent of whom rely on livestock production for most of their existence and follow a pastoral, transhumant lifestyle (Bryden 1996). Afar pastoralists keep multiple species of multi-purpose livestock to meet the basic objectives of surviving drought, providing consumable milk and having animals to exchange or sell (Getachew 2001). The Afar diet consists primarily of milk, supplemented with grain (Tilahun 1983). The real contribution of milk and grain to the diet is not well documented in Afar and reports are very contradictory. Tilahun (1983) claims that as little as 10 percent of the family's energy intake is provided by milk, yet gives estimates for milk consumption of 3 litres per adult per day during the hot (food stress) season, which is close to 100 percent of adult daily energy requirements. Nevertheless, Afar pastoralists display a degree of reliance on markets despite the shortage of marketing centres and the absence of a custom of middle-men who mediate between herders and traders. Pastoralists generally have to travel a great distance to market, which makes the return trip with unsold livestock unfeasible and puts negotiating power into the hands of the traders (Piguet 2001). According to Tilahun's observations (ibid.) over half of the animals being sold had travelled more than 10 km to reach the marketplace and many were observed to have travelled for two or more days. There is a dearth of research on the Afar of Ethiopia and this paper therefore addresses a broad range of issues and questions to build up a reasonable foundation for subsequent arguments. The paper attempts to develop a better understanding of how the Afar view and value the institutions that are central to their existence in order to improve understanding of their goals and aspirations. The paper also broadens the focus beyond the Afar's most visible livestock assets to assist in analysing the choices that they make over allocation of resources. Using data gathered between July and November 2002 in central Afar, this paper examines how economic behaviour is manifested among Afar pastoralists, and also examines the benefits of internal and external exchange. The paper considers the value of livestock exchange for accruing insurance, which is invested in during times of glut and claimed in times of stress, and the impact that such value may have on the commoditisation of livestock. Qualitative research is used to develop the understanding of the extent of social capital and internal livestock transfers in Afar and quantitative analysis is used to examine the factors influencing marketing behaviour. Pastoral Livelihood Assets Pastoralists are unique amongst livestock producers in that they survive primarily on milk and milk products rather than meat (Perrier 1995). …

Capitalisation, Commoditisation and Obligation among Ethiopia's Afar Pastoralists

Abstract This paper on the Afar pastoralists of north-eastern Ethiopia examines their livelihood goals to understand how they view the institutions that are central to their existence. The paper examines the choices made in allocating livestock resources to accumulate different forms of capital. Using qualitative and quantitative research the paper considers the value of internal livestock exchange for accruing insurance and the impact that such value has on the commoditisation of livestock.

Changing conflict resolution institutions in the Ethiopian pastoral commons: the role of armed confrontation in rule-making

Pastoralist access and use of common grazing resources in the Horn of Africa increasingly include armed confrontation over diminishing resources and reduced access. This comes about as traditional customary institutions (sets of rules) for commons management become compromised due to the presence of outside influences and actors which significantly change both resource availability, and conceptions about who is subject to traditional rules governing commons – particularly rules associated with exclusion. At the same time a combination of local knowledge regarding what happens to open access commons (degradation), a reluctance to give up control of commons and associated ways of life, and armed conflict as a viable alternative for exclusion rules, provide for combative situations and large costs. While a great deal of valuable work has been accomplished regarding the derivation of effective institutions to better manage commons, situations of armed conflict can seem particularly distant from effective rule-making, because few institutions can endure the stresses of armed conflict. Recent developments in Ethiopia however suggest an unexpected proximity between armed confrontation and the prospect for commons management rule-making. With examples from the Afar, Somali and Karamojong Cluster pastoralists, this paper examines the ingredients for rule-making in combative commons situations. Specific coincident forms of state recognition, donor flexibility, perceptions of the cost of conflict, and the local to international reaction to these, are examined for their utility and limitations in the provision of a facilitating context for institution derivation for commons management.