Aerosol Velocity Research Articles

EHD dispersion of atmospheric aerosols through a vertical channel with temperature distributions

The electrohydrodynamic (EHD) dispersion of atmospheric aerosols consisting of a couple stress fluid through a vertical channel, when the walls are held at different temperatures is studied by using Taylor dispersion model. Analytical solutions for the nonlinear coupled equations are obtained using a regular perturbation technique (RPT) with buoyancy number, N(<<1) as the perturbation parameter. The effect of electric field and couple stress parameter on velocity, temperature and dispersion of aerosols are numerically computed and the results are represented graphically.

Depositional fluxes and concentrations of7Be and210Pb in bulk precipitation and aerosols at the interface of Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts in Spain

[1] Bulk depositional fluxes of 7Be and 210Pb in precipitation measured over a period of 16 months (April 2009–July 2010) in Huelva, Spain varied between 5.6 and 186 Bq m−2 month−1 (annual mean: 834 Bq m−2 year−1) and 0.8 and 8.1 Bq m−2 month−1 (annual mean: 59 Bq m−2 year−1), respectively, with the lowest depositional fluxes occurring during dry summer months. Quantitative evaluation of the precipitation-normalized seasonal depositional fluxes of 7Be and 210Pb indicates that the enrichment factor in winter is < 1.0 while in 2010 spring, it is significantly higher than 1, possibly indicating input of air from the stratosphere-troposphere exchange (for 7Be). The specific activities of 7Be and 210Pb varied from 0.03 to 7.42 Bq L−1 (mean = 2.5 Bq L−1) and 0.005 to 1.07 BqL−1 (mean = 0.23 Bq L−1), respectively, with the highest values corresponding to the spring season. The spatial and temporal variations of 7Be and 210Pb in aerosols from three stations are evaluated and compared to their monthly depositional fluxes. The mean depositional velocity of aerosols using 7Be and 210Pb are similar, ∼0.5 cm s−1 and are compared to other published values. This is the first time the fractional amounts of 7Be and 210Pb in monthly bulk precipitation are compared to the fractional amount of precipitation and provides insight on how the amount of precipitation plays a key role on the scavenging of these nuclides. The importance of dry fallout is evaluated for the study site which has direct implications for other areas in the Mediterranean Climate Zone.

Study of aerosol behavior on the basis of morphological characteristics during festival events in India

Abstract Two important festival events were selected to assess their impacts on atmospheric chemistry by understanding settling velocity and emission time of aerosols. Using high volume sampler, aerosols were collected in a sequential manner to understand settling velocity and emission time of aerosols on a particular day. Composition and total suspended particulate load of the aerosols collected during the festivals were used as markers for strengthening the assessment. Terminal settling velocity of the aerosols were calculated using morphological and elemental compositional data, obtained from scanning electron microcopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) study. Aerosol load, black carbon, aromatic carbon and terminal velocity calculations were correlated to obtain conclusion that aerosols collected on the festival day might have been emitted prior to the festival. Settling time of aerosols collected on 17th and 19th October’09 during Diwali were found to be 36.5 (1.5 days) and 12.8 h, respectively. Carbon concentration estimated using EDX was found to be almost double in the sample collected after 2 days of the festival event. This strengthens our inference of time calculation where carbon with high concentration of load must have settled approximately after two days of the event. Settling time of aerosols collected on Holi morning and afternoon was found to be 1.7 and 24.8 h, respectively. Further, because of the small distance of 5.4 km between the meteorological station and sampling site, observed TSP values were compared with theoretical load values, calculated by using visibility values taken from the meteorological data. And it was found that both experimental and calculated values are close to each other about 50% of the times, which proves the assumption that experimental and meteorological data are comparable.

Toxic industrial chemical (TIC) source emissions modeling for pressurized liquefied gases

The objective of this article is to report current toxic industrial chemical (TIC) source emissions formulas appropriate for use in atmospheric comprehensive risk assessment models so as to represent state-of-the-art knowledge. The focus is on high-priority scenarios, including two-phase releases of pressurized liquefied gases such as chlorine from rail cars. The total mass released and the release duration are major parameters, as well as the velocity, thermodynamic state, and amount and droplet sizes of imbedded aerosols of the material at the exit of the rupture, which are required as inputs to the subsequent jet and dispersion modeling. Because of the many possible release scenarios that could develop, a suite of model equations has been described. These allow for gas, two-phase or liquid storage and release through ruptures of various types including sharp-edged and “pipe-like” ruptures. Model equations for jet depressurization and phase change due to flashing are available. Consideration of the importance of vessel response to a rupture is introduced. The breakup of the jet into fine droplets and their subsequent suspension and evaporation, or rainout is still a significant uncertainty in the overall modeling process. The recommended models are evaluated with data from various TIC field experiments, in particular recent experiments with pressurized liquefied gases. It is found that there is typically a factor of two error in models compared with research-grade observations of mass flow rates. However, biases are present in models’ estimates of the droplet size distributions resulting from flashing releases.

Evaluation of droplet velocity and size from nasal spray devices using phase Doppler anemometry (PDA)

To determine aerosol deposition during the inhalation drug delivery, it is important to understand the combination of velocity and droplet size together. In this study, phase Doppler anemometry (PDA) was used to simultaneously characterize the aerosol velocity and droplet size distribution (DSD) of three nasal spray pumps filled with water. Thirteen sampling positions were located in the horizontal cross-sectional area of the nasal spray plumes at a distance of 3 cm from the pump orifice. The results showed droplet velocities near the center of the spray plume were higher and more consistent than those near the edge. The pumps examined showed significant differences in their aerosol velocity at the center of the spray plume, which suggest that this metric might be used as a discriminating parameter for in vitro testing of nasal sprays. Droplet size measurements performed using PDA were compared with results from laser light scattering measurements. The ability of PDA to provide simultaneous measurements of aerosol velocity and size makes it a powerful tool for the detailed investigation of nasal spray plume characteristics.

Atmospheric Fe deposition modes at Bermuda and the adjacent Sargasso Sea

The atmospheric fluxes of Fe and Al were determined from bulk (wet + dry) plus wet only deposition and aerosol samples collected at Bermuda from 1999 to 2001. During the sampling period, dry deposition accounted for majority (&gt;70%) of total Fe deposition estimated by both modeled and measured means. This contrasts the North Pacific, where generally wet dominates dry deposition. This may be caused by the size and proximity of continental dust sources and seasonal patterns of precipitation to the North Atlantic. Comparing time series measurement of wet soluble Fe deposition indicates that the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) may impact the deposition mode of Fe in these areas. The dry deposition velocities of Fe‐bearing aerosols (DDVFe) were estimated from paired averages of measured dry deposition (bulk‐wet fluxes) divided by corresponding aerosol concentrations, and a seasonal trend was observed. During the summer months of 1999, the DDVFe ranged from 0.1 to 0.3 cm s−1; yet, during the fall and winter months, the DDVFe ranged from 2.0 to 6.0 cm s−1. It is hypothesized that with increased humidity and wind speeds at Bermuda during fall and winter, mineral aerosol particles could be internally mixed with sea salt and gaseous S and N pollutants to increase effective particle sizes. Such marine particle aggregation is reported elsewhere and could seasonally increase the apparent dry deposition velocity of mineral aerosols.

Design Optimization of a Novel pMDI Actuator for Systemic Drug Delivery

Pressurized metered dose inhalers (pMDIs) are the most widely prescribed and economical respiratory drug delivery systems. Conventional pMDI actuators-those based on "two-orifice-and-sump" designs-produce an aerosol with a reasonable respirable fraction, but with high aerosol velocity. The latter is responsible for high oropharyngeal deposition, and consequently low drug delivery efficiency. Kos' pMDI technology is based on a proprietary vortex nozzle actuator (VNA), an innovative actuator configuration that seeks to reduce aerosol plume velocity, thereby promoting deep lung deposition. Using VNA development as a case study, this paper presents a systematic design optimization process to improve the actuator performance through use of advanced optical characterization tools. The optimization effort mainly relied on laser-based optical diagnostics to provide an improved understanding of the fundamentals of aerosol formation and interplay of various geometrical factors. The performance of the optimized VNA design thus evolved was characterized using phase Doppler anemometry and cascade impaction. The aerosol velocities for both standard and optimized VNA designs were found to be comparable, with both notably less than conventional actuators. The optimized VNA design also significantly reduces drug deposition in the actuator as well as USP throat adapter, which in turn, leads to a significantly higher fine particle fraction than the standard design (78 +/- 3% vs. 63 +/- 2% on an ex valve basis). This improved drug delivery efficiency makes VNA technology a practical proposition as a systemic drug delivery platform. Thus, this paper demonstrates how advanced optical diagnostic and characterization tools can be used in the development of high efficiency aerosol drug delivery devices.

The capture of fly ash particles using circular and noncircular cross‐section fabric filters

AbstractThe great interest in the use of fabric filters made of noncircular cross‐section fibers for collecting small coal fly ash particles (Geldart's type‐C particles) can be seen in this study, in which a nonwoven fabric filter made of circular cross‐section polyester fibers was compared with another nonwoven fabric filter made of predominantly trilobal cross‐section polyimide fibers.The experimental results show that the collection efficiency of the coal fly ash particles of the polyimide fiber filters is higher than that of polyester fiber filters, mainly for particles smaller than 1.2 μm and with a superficial aerosol velocity of 0.1 m/s. Moreover, the pressure drop across the fabric filters made of polyimide fibers is lower than that of the polyester fiber filters.The influence of the thickness of the polyimide fibers on collection efficiency and pressure drop was also checked, and the results showed that the thinnest fiber fabric filter had the highest collection efficiency, as well as the highest pressure drop. © 2007 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog 26:50–58, 2007.

Visualization of aerosol particles generated by near infrared nano- and femtosecond laser ablation

The expansion of aerosols generated by near infrared (NIR) nanosecond (ns) and femtosecond (fs) laser ablation (LA) of metals at atmospheric pressures was explored by laser-induced scattering. In order to achieve adequate temporal and spatial resolution a pulsed laser source was utilized for illuminating a 0.5 mm-wide cross section of the expanding aerosol. It could, for instance, be shown that NIR-ns-LA under quiescent argon atmosphere provokes the formation of a dense aerosol confined within a radially propagating vortex ring. The expansion dynamics achieved under these conditions were found to be fairly slow whereas the degree of aerosol dispersion for NIR-ns-LA using helium drastically increased due to its lower viscosity. As a consequence, the maximum diameter of expansion differed by a factor of approximately four. The trajectories of aerosol particles generated by NIR-ns-LA using argon could, furthermore, be simulated on the basis of computational fluid dynamics (CFD). For this purpose, a model inspired by the thermal character of NIR-ns-LA taking into account a sudden temperature build-up of 10,000 K at the position of the laser focus was implemented. In contrast, NIR-fs-LA generally resulted in extremely dynamic expansion patterns. Initial aerosol velocities derived from corresponding expansion plots varied from 10 m/s up to 30 m/s for fs-LA using argon and helium, respectively. Our results, moreover, indicate that fs-LA carried out under helium atmosphere favours a chaotic aerosol expansion. Analytical implications concerning, e.g. dispersion phenomena or the choice of the LA protocol and physical dimensions of future ablation cell designs are discussed.

Comparison of the Aerosol Velocity and Spray Duration of Respimat® Soft Mist™ Inhaler and Pressurized Metered Dose Inhalers

Apart from particle size distribution, spray velocity is one of the most important aerosol characteristics that influence lung deposition of inhaled drugs. The time period over which the aerosol is released (spray duration) is also important for coordination of inhalation. Respimat Soft Mist Inhaler (SMI) is a new generation, propellant-free inhaler that delivers drug to the lung much more efficiently than pressurised metered dose inhalers (pMDIs). The objective of this study was to compare the velocity and spray duration of aerosol clouds produced by Respimat SMI with those from a variety of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrofluoroalkane (HFA) pMDIs. All inhalers contained solutions or suspensions of bronchodilators. A videorecording method was used to determine the aerosol velocity. For spray duration, the time for generation of the Soft Mist by Respimat SMI was initially determined using three different methods (videorecording [techniques A and B], laser light diffraction and rotating disc). Videorecording was then used to compare the spray duration of Respimat SMI with those from the other inhalers. The Soft Mist produced by Respimat SMI moved much more slowly and had a more prolonged duration than aerosol clouds from pMDIs (mean velocity at a 10-cm distance from the nozzle: Respimat SMI, 0.8 m/sec; pMDIs, 2.0-8.4 m/sec; mean duration: Respimat SMI, 1.5 sec; pMDIs, 0.15-0.36 sec). These characteristics should result in improved lung and reduced oropharyngeal deposition, and are likely to simplify coordination of inhaler actuation and inhalation compared with pMDIs.

Spatial Mapping of Droplet Velocity and Size for Direct and Indirect Nebulization in Plasma Spectrometry

Two novel laser-based imaging techniques centered on particle image velocimetry and optical patternation are used to map and contrast the size and velocity distributions for indirect and direct pneumatic nebulizations in plasma spectrometry. The flow field of droplets is illuminated by two pulses from a thin laser sheet with a known time difference. The scattering of the laser light from droplets is captured by a charge-coupled device (CCD), providing two instantaneous images of the particles. Pointwise cross-correlation of the corresponding images yields a two-dimensional velocity map of the aerosol velocity field. For droplet size distribution studies, the solution is doped with a fluorescent dye and both laser-induced florescence (LIF) and Mie scattering images are captured simultaneously by two CCDs with the same field of view. The ratio of the LIF/Mie images provides relative droplet size information, which is then scaled by a point calibration method via a phase Doppler particle analyzer. Two major findings are realized for three nebulization systems: (1) a direct injection high-efficiency nebulizer (DIHEN); (2) a large-bore DIHEN; and (3) a PFA microflow nebulizer with a PFA Scott-type spray chamber. First, the central region of the aerosol cone from the direct injection nebulizers and the nebulizer-spray chamber arrangement consists of fast (>13 and >8 m/s, respectively) and fine (<10 and <5 microm, respectively) droplets as compared to slow (<4 m/s) and large (>25 microm) droplets in the fringes. Second, the spray chamber acts as a momentum separator, rather than a droplet size selector, as it removes droplets having larger sizes or velocities. The concepts and results presented in this research may be used to develop smart-tunable nebulizers, for example, by using the measured momentum as a feedback control for adjusting the nebulizer, i.e., its operating conditions, its critical dimensions, or both.

Light-induced evaporation and condensation growth of aerosol particles.

The nonisothermal evaporation and condensation of a particle suspended in a vapor-gas mixture under the effect of resonant optical radiation is studied. A traveling light wave is absorbed by the aerosol particle and velocity selectively by vapor molecules. The dependence of the evaporation or condensation rate on optical and thermophysical properties of the particle and gaseous molecules is studied. The free-molecule regime is examined.

DESIGN AND TESTING OF AN AEROSOL/SHEATH INLET FOR HIGH RESOLUTION MEASUREMENTS WITH A DMA

A modified aerosol/sheath inlet was designed for a differential mobility analyzer (DMA) for high resolution measurements based on field model calculations which include fluid flow, electric field, and convective/diffusive transport. To avoid the predicted flow recirculation for the current inlet design at an aerosol-to-sheath flow ratio of 0.05, the slit width is reduced and aerodynamically shaped so that the sheath velocity and aerosol velocity more nearly match. Numerical results are presented comparing the fluid flow of the old and new inlet. Problems associated with the old inlet include: flow unsteadiness at a flow ratio of 0.025, voltage shift at the peak particle concentration as a function of the flow ratio, and the historical observation that, while performing tandem differential mobility analyzer measurements (TDMA), the voltage applied on the second DMA for the peak particle concentration is higher than that for the first. Measurements demonstrate that all these problems are reduced or eliminated with the new inlet design. The TDMA measurements include flow ratios of 0.1, 0.05, 0.025 and 0.0125 at sheath flows of 166 and 333 cm 3 s -1 (10 and 20 l min -1). The challenge of performing measurements at these low flow ratios will be discussed including flow calibration, flow matching, and pressure monitoring. The new inlet is applied to the measurement of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 0.1 μm Standard Reference Material 1963, and it is shown that the DMA can accurately measure the standard deviation of this narrowly distributed aerosol ( σ/ D p=0.02).

MEASUREMENT OF AEROSOL EFFECTIVE TRANSPORT COEFFICIENTS IN CYLINDRICAL TUBES

Transport of submicrometer aerosols in flows in tubes can be described by an effective one-dimensional axial convection–diffusion equation with apparent aerosol transport properties: mean aerosol velocity, mean aerosol diffusion coefficient (dispersivity) and mean aerosol deposition coefficient. These quantities are investigated experimentally by shape analyses of boluses of submicrometer Latex aerosol particles injected in the clean air flow through long tubes and a diffusion battery of capillary tubes. It is shown that the aerosol effective dispersivity and volumetric deposition coefficient significantly depend on the particle transit (residence) time within the tubes. For sufficiently long residence times these quantities are found to approach their asymptotic limiting values, predicted by the existing theories of the hydrodynamic dispersion. On the other hand, the mean aerosol velocity only weakly differs from the mean air velocity, and is almost independent of the aerosol residence time. The results obtained are important in several applications, including particle sampling using long tubes or lines.

SimultaneousIn-SituMeasurement of Local Particle Size, Particle Concentration, and Velocity of Aerosols

Photon correlation spectroscopy has been applied to the characterization of (quasi-)monodisperse aerosols. The experiments were carried out with an experimental standard pin hole setup on laminar flowing aerosols of the submicrometer particle size range. It is shown that beside local mean particle size and local aerosol velocity simultaneously the local particle number concentration may be obtained from a single measured autocorrelation function. The proposed procedure does not require calibration. It is pointed out that measurement conditions can be adapted to the properties of the aerosol to be characterized, thus allowing characterization of aerosols over a wide parameter range, e.g., it is not restricted to the case of low particle concentration. The experimental results are compared to data from literature, data from reference measurements and data from a theoretical model, respectively. The method can also be usefull for characterization of other fluid–particle systems as hydrosols.

Filtration Properties of Nonwovens

This paper presents the results and conclusions from experimental investigations concerning filtration properties of nonwovens. The needled nonwovens were made from polyester fibres (PTE) with average fibre diameter 12 µm and polypropylene fibres (PP) with average fibre diameter 32 μm. Nonwovens were produced out of each of those fibres or out of a mixture of polyester and polypropylene fibres. This paper also presents investigations of nonwoven fabric made of polypropylene fibres (PP) with average fibre diameter 2.6 μm, which was formed according to melt-blown technology. Oil mist, as challenge aerosol, was used to evaluate the performance of filter media at various aerosol velocities. The average oil mist test aerosol particle diameter was 0.3 μm. Filter penetration was measured at oil mist concentration 0.24 g/m3.

Phase Doppler anemometer: commissioning tests for measurement of water aerosol sizes and velocities in flashing jets

A state-of-the-art phase Doppler Anemometer (PDA) has been commissioned at AECL Research, Whiteshell Laboratories to undertake the measurement of size and velocity of water droplets generated in flashing jets. Experimental data on size and velocity distribution of water aerosols in flashing jets are required to support licensing of current multiple-unit and single-unit Canada deuteruim uranium stations. This paper presents the methodology involved in choosing the magnitudes of the various operating parameters of the PDA such as laser power and sensitivity of photomultiplier tubes in obtaining the experimental data. The various calibration and validation procedures used are also discussed. Size and velocity distributions in a typical flashing jet are presented.

Factors Affecting the Performance of Engine Air Filters

Abrasive particles entering an engine because of inadequate air filtration can cause excessive wear, which may lead to premature engine failure. Despite the importance of filtration in engine systems, there is little understanding of the dynamics of the filtration process. Often, limited space is available for an engine air induction system. Therefore, filters are designed in smaller packages, resulting in higher aerosol velocities through the primary filter material. High aerosol velocities may cause dust re-entrainment and increase the amount of dust penetrating the filter. Our experiments with cellulose and synthetic-type filter media show examples of dust reentrainment for fine and coarse dust. Conditions for dust particle re-entrainment are discussed.

A re‐evaluation of the Stokes drift in the polar summer mesosphere

The Stokes drift argument put forth by Coy et al. (1986) to explain the monthly mean downward vertical velocities observed in the summer polar mesosphere by radars is critically re‐examined. The size of the effect is quite sensitive to the choice of gravity wave wavenumber and phase speed. We reproduce the Coy et al. (1986) result for a monochromatic gravity wave and then generalize to a Garrett‐Munk type spectrum. This allows us to easily incorporate experimentally determined wave field parameters in order to predict a Stokes drift magnitude. The Stokes drift we calculate for mesospheric spectra reported in the literature is less than 4 cm/s. This is nearly a factor of 10 smaller than the mean June and July downward vertical velocities we have verified from 4‐year averaging of the Poker Flat, Alaska, radar data base. In this extended analysis we also find that the upward winter mean vertical velocity is smaller than previously reported but still in apparent conflict with the mesospheric winter circulation theory. We suggest, as an alternative to the Stokes drift idea, that the observed summer velocity might be the terminal velocity of charged aerosols. Such an explanation would have the advantage of relating the mean velocity observations to the large VHF radar cross section exhibited by the polar summer Mesosphere. This possible connection is discussed further in a companion paper.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF DUST FILTRATION IN SURFACE-TYPE NONWOVENS

ABSTRACT Surface type nonwovens are widely used in industrial dust control. Recently, they have been utilized in some engine air filtration applications as automotive filters, heavy-duty engine self-cleaning filters or safety filters. Because of their mechanical strength and regenerative ability they are a perfect material for applications where filter replacement is a problem. On the other hand, the random distribution of fibers and needle punching may result in pinhole formation during dust loading, especially at high aerosol velocities. As a result, the seepage mechanism is common in applications involving fine solid aerosols. In the inertia dominated region, the collection efficiency of particles depends on the adhesion probability. When particle momentum increases, the efficiency decreases. In general, there is no agreement between filtration theory and experiment when the Stokes number is greater than one. Filter efficiency increases with dust loading when the filter medium is a good dust cake suppo...