Advanced High Strength Steel Grades Research Articles

Comparison of the hardening behaviour of different steel families: From mild and stainless steel to advanced high strength steels

Although steel has been used in vehicles from the automotive industry׳s inception, different steel grades are continually being developed in order to satisfy new fuel economy requirements. For example, advanced high strength steel grades (AHSS) are widely used due to their good strength/weight ratio. Because each steel grade has a different microstructure composition, they show different behaviours when they are subjected to different strain paths in forming processes. Materials with high yield strength tend to be influenced by phenomena of cyclic plasticity such as the Bauschinger Effect, while low yield strength materials tend to harden when they are subjected to cyclic loading.Different steel grades are used in different forming processes, which are usually optimised by numerical tools such as Finite Element Models. This method requires proper hardening rules in order to correctly predict the real behaviour of the materials. For instance, AHSS are usually well modelled by means of mixed isotropic–kinematic hardening models.The methodology for developing a mixed hardening model to be implemented in finite element codes and simulate sheet forming processes requires three steps: (i) an appropriate experimental test to obtain stress–strain curves, (ii) a model able to predict accurately the behaviour of the material and (iii) a parameter identification method. Currently, there are few studies which analyse and model the hardening behaviour of different steel families following the same methodology. In this work, a wide range of steels from low to high yield strengths were characterised and their hardening behaviour modelled with the same methodology so as to provide comparative data.In particular, the Chaboche and Lemaitre hardening model was successfully fitted to the experimental stress–strain curves obtained from a tension–compression test. The test was performed at low cyclic deformations (±2%) due to the limitation of the test to achieve higher deformations during the compression without buckling. Therefore, this modelization is useful for low deformation processes such as the roll levelling process (Silvestre; 2013, Silvestre et al. Steel Res Int; 2012, 1295), in which the maximum deformations achieved are lower than 2%.

Physically Based Criterion for Prediction of Instability under Stretch-Bending of Sheet Metal

This research focuses on the prediction of the forming limit of certain Advanced High Strength Steel grades under stretch-bending conditions. For these types of steels it is experimentally observed and shown that when there is a bending component added to the main membrane deformation the formability predicted by the regular FLCs underestimate the material behavior. Due to the added effects of thickness stress due to contact and small radius bending as well as bending stresses, a through-thickness stress gradient forms which gives additional stability to the material beyond the forming limits determined by tests that generate mostly uniform membrane deformation. It is observed experimentally and by the detailed simulations that the cross-sectional stability is not lost instantaneously but gradually. A surface dent forms first on the outer surface and progresses in a stable manner towards the contact side since on the contact side the material has still potential to harden. This process delays the localization of the strains and stabilizes the formation of the local neck. For the prediction of this phenomenon theoretically and using shell elements, a modified incremental form of the maximum tension stability criterion is proposed to be applied at integration points through thickness. It is shown that with this criterion the phenomenon of gradual loss of stability can be captured during stretch-bending with shell elements.

Effect of slide motion on springback in 2-D draw bending for AHSS

The springback behavior of two advanced high strength steel (AHSS) grades, DP 780 and DP 980, after different forming conditions, was investigated. 2-D draw bending experiments were performed using a direct-drive digital servo-press in three operation modes, conventional (V-mode), relaxation mode (Stepwise and U-mode) and the attach-detach (A-D mode). Numerical simulations were conducted to in an attempt to reproduce the results and to perform parametric studies. The material behavior was captured using the homogeneous anisotropic hardening (HAH) distortional plasticity approach together with the chord elastic modulus model. In addition, the stress relaxation effects were implemented in the code by using a creep law in order to study the influence of a stepwise slide motion mode as well as holding at the bottom dead center. Both experimental and finite element (FE) simulation results demonstrate that detachment of tools from the work-piece was effective to reduce the springback while the effect of stress relaxation was insignificant. The numerical analysis was validated and successfully explained the importance of a forming path change on the final stress state. Based on the result of this study, a new method to reduce springback was introduced.

Effects of Anisotropic Yield Functions on Prediction of Forming Limit Diagram for AHS Steel

In this study, experimental and numerical analyses of Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) for Advanced High Strength (AHS) steel grade 980 were performed. Forming limit curve was first determined by means of the Nakazima stretch-forming test. Then, analytical calculations of the FLD based on the Marciniak-Kuczynski (M-K) model were carried out. Different yield criteria, namely, Hill’48 (r-value and stress-based), Yld89 (r-value and stress-based) and Barlat2000 (Yld2000-2d) were investigated. The strain hardening law according to Swift was applied. To identify parameters of each model, uniaxial tension, balanced bi-axial bulge test and in-plane biaxial tension test were performed. As a result, predicted plastic flow stresses and plastic anisotropies of the AHS steel by various directions were evaluated. In addition, effects of the anisotropic yield functions, strain rate sensitivities, imperfection values and work hardening coefficient on the predicted FLD were studied and discussed. It was found that the FLD based on the Yld2000-2d yield criterion was in better agreement with the experimental curve. Accuracy of the FLD predictions based on the M-K theory, especially in the biaxial state of stress, significantly depended on the applied yield criteria, for which yield stresses and r-values of different loading directions were required.

Tailoring of oxide morphology and crystallinity on advanced high-strength steel surfaces prior hot-dip galvanizing

Annealing of advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) grades often results in surfaces being fully covered by oxides due to alloying elements which diffuse to the steel surface during annealing and which are oxidized there by residual oxygen from the furnace atmosphere. However, these surface oxides tend to significantly hamper the hot-dip galvanizability and are therefore repeatedly under investigation with respect to their morphology and chemical composition for an optimization of the overall galvanizing performance. In the present work two different kinds of AHSS grades are analysed in detail by scanning electron microscopy as well as by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy to characterize the formed surface oxides, clearly revealing that it is not only the chemical composition of the oxides influencing their morphology and structure: the oxidation potential of the annealing atmosphere is found to have a significant impact on the surface oxide characteristics, namely the degree of crystallinity, as well. Consequently, these findings can be used to improve the galvanizability of a steel grade by changing the surface oxide morphology.

Forming Limit Curves and Forming Limit Stress Curves for Advanced High Strength Steels

Experimental and numerical investigations using Forming Limit Curve (FLC) and Forming Limit Stress Curve (FLSC) were carried out for two Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) grades DP780 and TRIP780. The forming limit curves were experimentally determined by means of Nakazima stretching test. Then, both FLC and FLSC were analytically calculated on the basis of the Marciniack-Kuczinsky (M-K) model. The yield criteria Barlat2000 (Yld2000-2d) were employed in combination with the Swift and modified Voce strain hardening laws to describe plastic flow behavior of the AHS steels. Hereby, influence of the constitutive models on the numerically determined FLCs and FLSCs were examined. Obviously, the forming limit curves predicted by the M-K model applying the Yld2000-2d yield criterion and Swift hardening law could fairly represent the experimental limit curves. The FLSCs resulted from the experimental data and theoretical model were also compared.

Influence of Ultrafast Cooling on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Steel

The objective of this study is to find the effect of ultrafast cooling on microstructure and mechanical properties of steel with different carbon composition. Steel samples of 6 mm thick AISI 1008, AISI 1040, AISI 1075, and AISI 1090 have been used in the ultrafast cooling experiments to study the effect of carbon percentage on the cooling rate and mechanical properties. Air-atomized spray cooling system has been deployed with a fixed air flow rate and varying water flow rates. Experimental results have shown that, as water flow rate is increased, the cooling rate and surface heat flux increase for all grades of steel. It has been observed that the steel with higher carbon content requires higher water flow rates to reach an ultra fast cooling rate of more than 140°C s−1. After cooling experiments the microstructure, tensile strength and hardness of the samples have been examined and it is found that increase in carbon content affects the cooling rate and also consequently the microstructure. The tensile strength and the hardness of the final product after the ultrafast cooling process conform the advanced high strength steel (AHSS) grade with high martensite phase composition of 65% to 95%.

The effect of laser cutting parameters on the formability of complex phase steel

An experimental advanced high-strength steel grade CP700 was cut using a matrix of laser process parameters in order to generate an understanding of the influence that traverse cutting speed, power and assist gas pressure have on cut-edge formation. The formation of laser cut-edges has been assessed and related to the heat-affected zone microstructure, kerf perpendicularity, surface roughness and waviness properties. It is these characteristics that are significant towards influencing the hole expansion capacity formability properties of laser cut-edges, which were determined to show significant improvements in the formability when using optimum laser cut-edges. Understanding the effect of laser cutting process parameters on the factors influencing striation formation and microstructural deformations was critical towards being able to produce an optimum level of formability.

A Review of the Physical Metallurgy related to the Hot Press Forming of Advanced High Strength Steel

The automotive industry requirements for vehicle weight reduction, weight containment, improved part functionality and passenger safety have resulted in the increased use of steel grades with a fully martensitic microstructure. These steel grades are essential to improve the anti-intrusion resistance of automotive body parts and the related passenger safety during car collisions. Standard advanced high strength steel (AHSS) grades are notoriously difficult to be press formed; they are characterized by elastic springback, poor stretch flangeability and low hole expansion ratios. Hot press forming has therefore received much attention recently as an alternative technology to produce AHSS automotive parts. In this contribution, the physical metallurgy principles of the hot press forming process are reviewed. The effect of composition on CCT curves of standard CMnB hot press forming steels is discussed taking the deformation during press forming into account. Furthermore,the effect of the static strain ageing processes occurring during the paint baking cycle on the in-service mechanical properties of press hardened steel will be presented. The influence of temperate and strain rate on the flow stress during press forming and the final room temperature mechanical properties will be discuss ed. Moreover, the issues related to coatings on B-alloyed CMn hot press forming steel will be critically reviewed. In particular the combined effects of thermal cycle and deformation on the degradation of the Al-10%Si coating will be discussed in detail. Finally, the properties of both Al-based and Zn-based coating systems are compared, and the possibility of the formation of a diffusion barrier during press forming is discussed.

A novel approach to determine high temperature wettability and interfacial reactions in liquid metal/solid interface

In many technical processes, high temperature wetting of a liquid metal phase on a solid substrate occurs via an extensive chemical reaction and the formation of a new solid compound at the interface. For instance, good adhesion of the zinc coating to the steel surface is one of the most important requirements that the hot-dip galvanizing process has to fulfill. Good adhesion directly depends on the formation of a defect-free Fe2Al5 inhibition layer at the interface. The complex surface chemistry of oxides on the steel surface which is a result of segregation and selective oxidation upon recrystallization annealing significantly influences the kinetics of the correlated reactive wetting. This article presents the development of a novel advanced technique for the investigation of high temperature wetting process up to a temperature of 1100 K and provides first new insights in the mechanisms of the reactive wetting process in presence of oxides on the surface. The method is based on the sessile drop method with an additional spinning technique to get rid off the liquid metal phase at any chosen wetting time, thusly opening the way to access the interfacial reaction layer directly. The presented work focuses on model alloys of interest which are mainly relevant to the industrial steel grades. Emphasis is put both on the wettability of liquid Zn and on the interfacial reactions during reactive wetting process. Insights into such reactive phenomena are fundamental demand to improve the hot-dip galvanizability of advanced high strength steel grades.

Experimental investigations on wear resistance characteristics of alternative die materials for stamping of advanced high-strength steels (AHSS)

Newer sheet alloys (such as Al, Mg, and advanced high-strength steels) are considered for automotive body panels and structural parts to achieve lightweight construction. However, in addition to issues with their limited formability and high springback, tribological conditions due to increased surface hardness and work hardening necessitate the use of alternative microstructurally improved die materials, coatings, and lubricants to minimize the wear-related die-life issues in stamping of advanced high-strength steel grades. This study aims to investigate and compare the wear performances of seven different, uncoated die materials (AISI D2, Vanadis 4, Vancron 40, K340 ISODUR, Caldie, Carmo, 0050A) using a newly developed wear testing device. DP600 AHSS (advanced high-strength steel) sheets were used in these tests. It was concluded that the tested die materials demonstrated higher wear resistance performance when compared to the conventional tool steel AISI D2 die material.

Failure During Sheared Edge Stretching

Failure during sheared edge stretching of sheet steels is a serious concern, especially in advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) grades. The shearing process produces a shear face and a zone of deformation behind the shear face, which is the shear-affected zone (SAZ). A failure during sheared edge stretching depends on prior deformation in the sheet, the shearing process, and the subsequent strain path in the SAZ during stretching. Data from laboratory hole expansion tests and hole extrusion tests for multiple lots of fourteen grades of steel were analyzed. The forming limit curve (FLC), regression equations, measurement uncertainty calculations, and difference calculations were used in the analyses. From these analyses, an assessment of the primary factors that contribute to the fracture during sheared edge stretching was made. It was found that the forming limit strain with consideration of strain path in the SAZ is a major factor that contributes to the failure of a sheared edge during stretching. Although metallurgical factors are important, they appear to play a somewhat lesser role.

Copper brazing response of some advanced high strength steel grades

Sheet steels are commonly used in automotive powertrain applications wherein formed and assembled components undergo a copper brazing operation as part of the manufacturing process. For high performance applications including transmission pump housings and turbines, specially processed microalloyed steels have been developed and specified in order to develop the desired mechanical properties after exposure to brazing temperatures of ∼1100 °C. New families of advanced high strength steel (AHSS) sheet are currently being developed and implemented. These are typified by increased alloy levels and exhibit unique property combinations that are particularly suited to auto body applications requiring the dual characteristics of high formability and high strength. Here it is considered that such grades may also be suited to powertrain components requiring high initial formability coupled with high final strength after copper brazing. That is, transformation strengthening during cooling after brazing is envisioned as a potential strengthening mechanism available with these new steels. In this work, initial screening results are reported to elucidate the response of some experimental AHSS to a simulated copper brazing operation during which the steels are taken into the austenitic temperature range and subsequently cooled at moderate rates to ambient conditions.

Quenching and Partitioning of Ni-Added High Strength Steels

High strength steels containing significant fractions of retained austenite have been developed in recent years, and are the subject of growing commercial interest when associated with the TRIP phenomenon during deformation. A new process concept “quenching and partitioning” (Q&P) has been proposed by CSM/USA, and the results show the potential to create a new kind of steel microstructure with controlled amounts of retained austenite, enriched by carbon partitioning. Four steels containing C, Si, Mn, Ni, Cr and Mo, were designed with variation in the Ni and C content, aiming to decrease Bs temperature and to suppress carbide formation during the partitioning treatment. Several heat-treatment procedures were performed in specimens previously machined for tensile testing, while x-ray diffraction was used to determine the fraction of retained austenite. The tensile test results showed that except for the high C high Ni alloy, most of the processing conditions resulted in strengths superior to those of advanced high strength steels (AHSS), although it is importantly recognized that higher alloy additions were used in this study, in comparison with conventional AHSS grades.. A variety of strength and ductility combinations were observed, confirming the potential of the Q&P process and illustrating the strong influence of the final microstructure on the mechanical properties. Experimental results for samples partitioned at 400 °C indicate that higher ultimate tensile strength is associated with higher fraction of retained austenite for multiple heat treatments of each alloy investigated. The amount of retained austenite obtained was generally lower than that predicted by the model. Further studies are in progress to understand the influence of alloying and processing parameters (time/temperature) on the partitioning of carbon and precipitation of transition carbides.

Microstructure and dynamic material performance of high strength and ultra high strength strip steels

The combined need for weight reduction and increased safety in modern vehicles has led automobile manufacturers to utilise the unique properties of high strength steels in their vehicles. Standard quasi-static tensile tests allow the static mechanical properties to be evaluated for any given steel grade. However, automobile designers require more advanced data, including high strain rate tensile data to fully understand the performance of a steel grade during deformation. Knowledge of the role of strain rate on a given strip steel grades deformation characteristics is essential to fully predict the behaviour of the steel during a crash event to help ensure the safety of the vehicle passengers. In the present study, three commercial strip steel grades were subjected to room temperature deformation at variable strain rates, ranging from quasi-static to dynamic loading conditions, where their obtained mechanical properties were measured. The steel grades studied were a HSLA grade (XF450), a carbon manganese grade (CMn800) and an advanced high strength steel grade (DP1400), each with very different microstructures. The present study showed that the XF450 with a ferrite (97%)-pearlite microstructure exhibited superior elongation and was the most strain rate sensitive grade. This was the only grade where energy absorption until 10% elongation could be measured. The DP1400 with a mainly martensitic microstructure showed very little change in strength or ductility properties over the tested strain rates.

Niobium in Engineering Steels for Automotive Applications

In the last decade, the European niobium consumption in automotive strip and sheet has more than tripled. The development of high strength and advanced high strength steel grades for strip and plate products focused upon constantly increasing strength levels combined with excellent fatigue properties as well as formability and weldability. Until now, the high potential of microalloyed steel has not been used to the same extent in forgings and springs. This paper reviews automotive components as transmissions, suspensions and springs highlighting new material solutions for special steels having optimized processing and in‐use properties. Special consideration is given to the metallurgical background as well as to examples for the processing and application of niobium microalloyed steel in forgings and springs from low carbon and higher carbon containing steels. Niobium metallurgy permits the reduction of carbon to meet more stringent end‐user requirements demanding high strength combined with improved toughness, fatigue strength and weldability at a competitive manufacturing cost.

ULSAB-AVC (Advances Vehicle Concepts). A contribution to the challenges facing automakers

The different ULSAB programmes offer steel solutions to the challenges facing automakers around the world today: increase fuel efficiency, improve vehicle performance and maintening affordability. In the ULSAB-AVC programme, the complete body structure consists of high strength steel with over 80% being advanced high strength steel grades. Application of advanced technology such as tailored blanks, tailored tubes, sheet and tube hydroforming, and extensive laser welding was also coupled with innovative design. The design and manufacturing features of ULSAB-AVC body structure are presented along CAE analysis and economic analysis results.